For a family of six, collecting enough water for drinking, cooking and basic hygiene may mean hauling heavy water containers from a distant source for an average of three hours a day. Women and girls are mainly responsible for fetching the water that their families need for drinking, bathing, cooking and other household uses (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 11).
Poor health resulting from inadequate water and sanitation robs the children of schooling and the adults of earning power, a situation aggravated for the women and girls by the daily chore of collecting water (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 11).
For pregnant women, access to enough good quality water is vitally important to protect them from serious diseases such as hepatitis (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 20).
Women face the challenge of maintaining basic household hygiene and keeping their own and their infants’ hands and bodies clean with limited water supplies, and at the same time avoiding contamination of water stored for drinking and cooking (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 20).
Currently, in sub-Saharan Africa, a larger proportion of women are infected with HIV than men. When women are living with HIV/AIDS, their suffering has a double impact on their families’ water problems (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 21).
Adoption of sustainable hygiene behaviours is strongly linked to the educational level of women. Better-educated women are more likely to adopt long-term hygiene behaviours (WHO/UNICEF, 2005: 31).
1.3 billion women and girls in developing countries are doing without access to private, safe and sanitary toilets. In some cultural settings where basic sanitation is lacking, women and girls have to rise before dawn, making their way in the darkness to fields, railroad tracks and roadsides to defecate in the open, knowing they may risk rape or other violence in the process (WHO/UNICEF, 2004: 21).
The lack of adequate, separate sanitary facilities in schools is one of the main factors preventing girls from attending school, particularly when menstruating. Gender-sensitive school sanitation programmes can increase girls’ enrolment significantly. In Bangladesh girls’ enrolment was increased by as much as 11 per cent over a four-year period (UN-WWAP, 2006: 230), while in the Morocco Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Project of the World Bank school attendance in 6 provinces increased by even 20% in four years. Time spent on collecting water by women and young girls was reduced by 50 to 90% (World Bank, 2003).
Showing posts with label water facts. Show all posts
Showing posts with label water facts. Show all posts
Saturday, November 3, 2007
FACTSHEET ON WATER AND SANITATION
Meeting Global Targets for Water and Sanitation
There are 1.1 billion people, or 18 per cent of the world's population, who lack access to safe drinking water. About 2.6 billion people, or 42 per cent of the total, lack access to basic sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 40)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) call for halving "by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation." The MDG for safe drinking water on a global scale appears likely to be reached, in most regions, with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa (WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 26).
Within the United Nations system, UN-Water is the inter-agency mechanism that coordinates the activities of 24 agencies of the United Nations system in the area of water resources, including sanitation.
1.1 billion people gained access to safe drinking water between 1990-2002. The greatest access gains were achieved in South Asia , where water access increased from 71 per cent in 1990 to 84 per cent in 2002. In sub-Saharan Africa , access grew minimally, from 49 percent in 1990 to 58 per cent in 2002. (WHO/UNICEF, 2004 : 10).
IIt is estimated that an additional investment of US$ 11.3 billion per year would be needed to achieve the MDGs for drinking water and sanitation at the most basic levels WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 2)
There are 1.1 billion people, or 18 per cent of the world's population, who lack access to safe drinking water. About 2.6 billion people, or 42 per cent of the total, lack access to basic sanitation (WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 40)
The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) call for halving "by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation." The MDG for safe drinking water on a global scale appears likely to be reached, in most regions, with the exception of sub-Saharan Africa (WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 26).
Within the United Nations system, UN-Water is the inter-agency mechanism that coordinates the activities of 24 agencies of the United Nations system in the area of water resources, including sanitation.
1.1 billion people gained access to safe drinking water between 1990-2002. The greatest access gains were achieved in South Asia , where water access increased from 71 per cent in 1990 to 84 per cent in 2002. In sub-Saharan Africa , access grew minimally, from 49 percent in 1990 to 58 per cent in 2002. (WHO/UNICEF, 2004 : 10).
IIt is estimated that an additional investment of US$ 11.3 billion per year would be needed to achieve the MDGs for drinking water and sanitation at the most basic levels WHO/UNICEF, 2005 : 2)
Tuesday, October 16, 2007
CASE STUDY
Cooling water in Indian Thermal Power Plants (TPPs)
According to CPCB's report on Water Quality in India 1990-2001 status and trends of the total wastewater discharged from all major industrial sectors, 80.3 per cent is cooling water generated just from TPPs. Therefore, closing the cooling water cycle should be the priority of Indian industry and the regulators alike.
Two cooling technologies are in use today:
Once-through cooling system: This system requires the intake of a continual flow of cooling water. The water demand for the once-through system is 30 to 50 times that of a closed cycle system. Most Indian TPPs operate this system.
Closed-cycle systems: This system discharges heat through evaporation in cooling towers and recycles water within the power plant. The water required to do this is comparatively small since it is limited to the amount lost through the evaporative process. Because of the expense associated with closed-cycle cooling, once-through systems are far more common. Some recently commissioned Indian TPPs employ this technology.
In once-through cooling system approximately 100 litres of water is required to produce 1 Kwh electricity. In badly managed TPPs this could go up to 200 litres. In comparison in a closed-cycle system, about 2-3 litres water is required to generate 1 Kwh electricity.
By converting all Indian TPPs to closed-cycle cooling system, by rough estimation almost 65,000 mld or 24 billion m3 fresh water can be saved. This is roughly equivalent to India's total domestic water requirement.
In closed-cycle cooling towers water is lost due to evaporation, windage and drift and intentional blow down. These losses are about 1.5-2 per cent of the recirculation rate. Currently fresh water is used as makeup in Indian industry. But with proper treatment of process wastewater and effective chemical treatment to control corrosion and fouling, wastewater can be easily reused in the cooling towers, reducing the freshwater intake for cooling to zero.
In general, combined primary (sedimentation) and secondary (biological oxidation, disinfection) treatment of wastewater is sufficient to make it suitable for cooling towers. Currently most large and medium scale Indian companies are required to treat their wastewater till secondary treatment to meet the pollution norms. Therefore, in these companies no additional investment is required for treating the wastewater and reusing it in cooling towers.
A wide range of chemicals are available today which can reduce the danger of corrosion and scaling in the cooling tower equipment thereby enabling the use of treated effluent as cooling water. Many companies outside India are using treated effluent as cooling water quite successfully. In places where fresh water is quite costly, use of treated effluent as cooling water presents substantial financial gain for the companies.
WATER RECYCLING AND REUSEWastewater treatment and recycling at industrial level with RO
Agency/project Technology used Capital cost (Rs crore) Operation and maintenance costs (Rs/kl)
Madras Fertilizers Limited, Chennai Size: 15.12 MLD 12.24 MLD is recycled to the cooling towers
and from this plant 3.0 MLD fresh water is
being supplied to Chennai City
Reverse 14.5 40-50
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (earlier known as Madras Refineries Limited) Size: 11.25 MLD
Treated water used for cooling towers
The quality of treated water is BOD-2 mg/l;
TDS- 30 mg/l; COD- 5.0 mg/l
Reverse Osmosis 20 43
GMR Power corporation, Chennai Size: 7. 2 MLD Treated water used for cooling towers Secondary and tertiary treatment followed by Reverse Osmosis 17.5 25
Source: i Showing the world the way, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
ii Conserving Water at MRL, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
iii Generating Clean Power, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 200
Membrane Technologies
A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material separating substances when a driving force is applied across it. Once considered a viable technology for desalination, membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal of bacteria and other microorganisms, particulate material, organic and inorganic chemicals and colour and other contaminants. As advances are made in membrane production and module design, capital and operating costs continue to decline. The pressure-driven membrane processes are essentially of four different kinds: micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano filtration and reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis (RO): RO use for wastewater recycling and reuse process has become quite common. O systems are compact, simple to operate, and require minimal labor, making them suitable for all systems. RO can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants, nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions from water. RO is particularly effective when used in series. Water passing through multiple units can achieve near-zero effluent contaminant concentrations.
The pre-treatment section, where the feed is treated by chemical clarification (precipitation, coagulation/flocculation or flotation) and subsequent filtration, or by filtration and subsequent ultra filtration
The membrane section, where high pressure is applied and the waste water is cross-flowed across the membrane
The post-treatment section, where the permeate is prepared for reuse or discharge, and the concentrate brine is collected for further work-up or for disposal
The capital and operating and maintenance cost of RO systems are become quite competitive with the increasing cost of buying water in water-scarce areas. For instance, the cost of treating municipal sewage water by RO in Chennai is in the range of Rs 25-50 per m3 (See: Wastewater treatment...). This is similar (in cases even lower) to the cost of fresh water charged by the Madras Water Supply & Sewage Board.
According to CPCB's report on Water Quality in India 1990-2001 status and trends of the total wastewater discharged from all major industrial sectors, 80.3 per cent is cooling water generated just from TPPs. Therefore, closing the cooling water cycle should be the priority of Indian industry and the regulators alike.
Two cooling technologies are in use today:
Once-through cooling system: This system requires the intake of a continual flow of cooling water. The water demand for the once-through system is 30 to 50 times that of a closed cycle system. Most Indian TPPs operate this system.
Closed-cycle systems: This system discharges heat through evaporation in cooling towers and recycles water within the power plant. The water required to do this is comparatively small since it is limited to the amount lost through the evaporative process. Because of the expense associated with closed-cycle cooling, once-through systems are far more common. Some recently commissioned Indian TPPs employ this technology.
In once-through cooling system approximately 100 litres of water is required to produce 1 Kwh electricity. In badly managed TPPs this could go up to 200 litres. In comparison in a closed-cycle system, about 2-3 litres water is required to generate 1 Kwh electricity.
By converting all Indian TPPs to closed-cycle cooling system, by rough estimation almost 65,000 mld or 24 billion m3 fresh water can be saved. This is roughly equivalent to India's total domestic water requirement.
In closed-cycle cooling towers water is lost due to evaporation, windage and drift and intentional blow down. These losses are about 1.5-2 per cent of the recirculation rate. Currently fresh water is used as makeup in Indian industry. But with proper treatment of process wastewater and effective chemical treatment to control corrosion and fouling, wastewater can be easily reused in the cooling towers, reducing the freshwater intake for cooling to zero.
In general, combined primary (sedimentation) and secondary (biological oxidation, disinfection) treatment of wastewater is sufficient to make it suitable for cooling towers. Currently most large and medium scale Indian companies are required to treat their wastewater till secondary treatment to meet the pollution norms. Therefore, in these companies no additional investment is required for treating the wastewater and reusing it in cooling towers.
A wide range of chemicals are available today which can reduce the danger of corrosion and scaling in the cooling tower equipment thereby enabling the use of treated effluent as cooling water. Many companies outside India are using treated effluent as cooling water quite successfully. In places where fresh water is quite costly, use of treated effluent as cooling water presents substantial financial gain for the companies.
WATER RECYCLING AND REUSEWastewater treatment and recycling at industrial level with RO
Agency/project Technology used Capital cost (Rs crore) Operation and maintenance costs (Rs/kl)
Madras Fertilizers Limited, Chennai Size: 15.12 MLD 12.24 MLD is recycled to the cooling towers
and from this plant 3.0 MLD fresh water is
being supplied to Chennai City
Reverse 14.5 40-50
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (earlier known as Madras Refineries Limited) Size: 11.25 MLD
Treated water used for cooling towers
The quality of treated water is BOD-2 mg/l;
TDS- 30 mg/l; COD- 5.0 mg/l
Reverse Osmosis 20 43
GMR Power corporation, Chennai Size: 7. 2 MLD Treated water used for cooling towers Secondary and tertiary treatment followed by Reverse Osmosis 17.5 25
Source: i Showing the world the way, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
ii Conserving Water at MRL, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
iii Generating Clean Power, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 200
Membrane Technologies
A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material separating substances when a driving force is applied across it. Once considered a viable technology for desalination, membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal of bacteria and other microorganisms, particulate material, organic and inorganic chemicals and colour and other contaminants. As advances are made in membrane production and module design, capital and operating costs continue to decline. The pressure-driven membrane processes are essentially of four different kinds: micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano filtration and reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis (RO): RO use for wastewater recycling and reuse process has become quite common. O systems are compact, simple to operate, and require minimal labor, making them suitable for all systems. RO can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants, nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions from water. RO is particularly effective when used in series. Water passing through multiple units can achieve near-zero effluent contaminant concentrations.
The pre-treatment section, where the feed is treated by chemical clarification (precipitation, coagulation/flocculation or flotation) and subsequent filtration, or by filtration and subsequent ultra filtration
The membrane section, where high pressure is applied and the waste water is cross-flowed across the membrane
The post-treatment section, where the permeate is prepared for reuse or discharge, and the concentrate brine is collected for further work-up or for disposal
The capital and operating and maintenance cost of RO systems are become quite competitive with the increasing cost of buying water in water-scarce areas. For instance, the cost of treating municipal sewage water by RO in Chennai is in the range of Rs 25-50 per m3 (See: Wastewater treatment...). This is similar (in cases even lower) to the cost of fresh water charged by the Madras Water Supply & Sewage Board.
Solving the water problem
The key to the problem lies in effective management of water resources. An integrated approach involving water treatment, source reduction, reuse of process water, effluent treatment, recycling of treated effluent and waste-minimisation is urgently required.
Improve process technology: Clean and advanced process technologies can help industry reduce its water demand. For instance, by replacing the conventional bleaching process with totally chlorine bleaching process, pulp and paper companies can almost close their water cycle. But they are costly.
Reuse process water: This involves reusing water in a series, in an open system, for two or more successive but different purposes. This enables use of poor quality water for more than one purpose.
Recirculate process water: Indefinite reuse of same water after treatment for the same purpose. Makeup water is to be used only to replace unavoidable losses. This is far cheaper than installing new process technology and recent technological development has made sure that it can be used by any type of industry.
Rainwater harvesting: This helps industries meet a substantial part of their annual water requirement even as demand on local sources is minimised.
Technology is not the bottleneck
There are enough technologies to solve all water problems and what is more, the prices of these technologies are gradually decreasing. In a nutshell, it quite feasible today for an Indian industry to substantially reduce its water consumption and wastewater discharge by putting efficient systems for recycling and reusing the process water. But for this to happen government policy needs to be overhauled.
Improve process technology: Clean and advanced process technologies can help industry reduce its water demand. For instance, by replacing the conventional bleaching process with totally chlorine bleaching process, pulp and paper companies can almost close their water cycle. But they are costly.
Reuse process water: This involves reusing water in a series, in an open system, for two or more successive but different purposes. This enables use of poor quality water for more than one purpose.
Recirculate process water: Indefinite reuse of same water after treatment for the same purpose. Makeup water is to be used only to replace unavoidable losses. This is far cheaper than installing new process technology and recent technological development has made sure that it can be used by any type of industry.
Rainwater harvesting: This helps industries meet a substantial part of their annual water requirement even as demand on local sources is minimised.
Technology is not the bottleneck
There are enough technologies to solve all water problems and what is more, the prices of these technologies are gradually decreasing. In a nutshell, it quite feasible today for an Indian industry to substantially reduce its water consumption and wastewater discharge by putting efficient systems for recycling and reusing the process water. But for this to happen government policy needs to be overhauled.
Just use it
Poor laws and regulations and lack of coordination between regulatory bodies worsen the water crisis
There is no concrete government policy on industrial water use. The existing policies are merely a atchwork of public health and water availability concerns.
Regulating use
GLOBAL: Countries across the world set water consumption standards and targets for industries to achieve, and regularly revise the standards in a bid to control water use. China, for instance, sets water targets for major water consuming industrial sectors. According to the report of China Water Conservation Agency, the first national quotas for industrial water consumption will push companies to save as much as 6 billion cubic meters of water a year by 2005. Similar water saving targets are fixed across the developed world.
INDIA: In India, as of now, there is no law determining the exact amount of water meant for consumption by the various industrial sectors. Though CPCB has prescribed water consumption levels for some industrial sectors, they are mere recommendations and cannot be enforced by laws. India also has some obsolete laws related to groundwater extraction. In Indian law, the person who owns the land also owns the groundwater below. Though this law has some relevance as far as the domestic groundwater use is concerned, it is outright absurd for industrial and commercial use. The result is that today, industries withdraw groundwater that remains unregulated and unpriced.
Regulating pollution
GLOBAL: Regulators are shifting from concentration-based standards to pollution load based standards. The pollution load-based standards determine the total amount of pollutant generated for per unit production. The pollution load-based standards also use the quota system for the amount of water allowed to various industries and therefore, with this standard pollution levels are monitored, as also the amount of freshwater consumed. This forces companies to reduce fresh water consumption as they save on water cost. Also, by introducing 'polluter pays principle' regulators push companies to reduce the total pollution load. Therefore, with the help of pollution load-based standards coupled with the 'polluter pays principle', regulators across the world are reducing fresh water consumption as well as water pollution by industries.
INDIA: In India both these principles are absent. The result is that industries use more freshwater and discharge more pollutants through wastewater and still meet the legal standards. The industrial water pollution standards in the country are concentration based, that is, they measure the concentration of pollution in a given quantity of water. The result is that an industry can meet the required standard merely by diluting the effluent with clean water. Since the cost of water is low, it makes more economic sense for an industry to dilute the effluent than to treat it to meet the standards. l
National Water Policy: Industry is let off!
The issues related to the industrial water have been addressed in vague and fragmented form in National Water Policy (NWP) released in 2002. No clear vision for regulating and controlling industrial water use has been given. The policies stated in NWP, 2002 are just not sufficient to result in modern control and regulation of the industrial water use as an integrated whole.
The entire document of 6000 words mentions industry just 6 times, unmindful of the environmental concerns industrial water use poses.
Water policy says:
Effluents should be treated to levels and standards that are acceptable before discharging them into natural streams.
Comment: Does not address the issue of pollution load. The current standards for industrial effluents are concentration- based, which does not provides incentive for reducing water use or pollution loads.
Principle of 'polluter pays' should be followed in management of polluted water.
Comment: Advocates 'polluter pays' principle' but is silent on extent of payment. Current water cess charged by pollution control boards is a 'polluter pays' regime, but the quantum of payment is so low that there is no incentive or disincentive for the industry for reducing wastewater discharge and hence water use.
Economic development and activities, including agriculture, industry and urban development, should be planned with due regard to the constraints imposed by the configuration of water availability. There should be a water zoning of the country and the economic activities should be guided and regulated in accordance with such zoning.
Comment: Unless addressed in the industrial policy, it has no significance.
Efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be optimised and an awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives.
Comment: Vague and indifferent.
The resources should be conserved and the availability augmented by maximising retention, eliminating pollution and minimising losses. For this, measures such as selective linings in the conveyance system, modernisation and rehabilitation of existing systems including tanks, recycling and re-use of treated effluents and adoption of traditional techniques like mulching or pitcher irrigation and new techniques like drip and sprinkler may be promoted, wherever feasible.
Comment: Vague and indifferent.
Wherever there is conflict, a commmunity suffers. So does industry
Water scarcity
It is a bottleneck for industrial development in the various states of India
In 2002, companies like Harihar Polyfibres Limited, Karnataka and the Indian Rayon plant, Nagda shut shop for a few days. Inducing them to take such a step was the non-availability of water.
Water scarcity is already taking its toll on industrial production. In summers, when most Indian rivers run dry, it is not uncommon to see companies closing shop.
In a study undertaken by the Confedaration of Indian Industry and the World Bank in 2003, to find out what constituted good investment climate in various parts of India, it was found that water availability is one of the major infrastructural bottlenecks companies in Tamil Nadu face. The study covered 1,099 manufacturing companies in four sectors - textiles, garments, consumer electronics and pharmaceuticals - in 10 states and listed water as one of the major bottlenecks for future industrial growth in the country.
Indian industry can no longer ignore water management issues if they are to grow and become globally competitive.
It is a bottleneck for industrial development in the various states of India
In 2002, companies like Harihar Polyfibres Limited, Karnataka and the Indian Rayon plant, Nagda shut shop for a few days. Inducing them to take such a step was the non-availability of water.
Water scarcity is already taking its toll on industrial production. In summers, when most Indian rivers run dry, it is not uncommon to see companies closing shop.
In a study undertaken by the Confedaration of Indian Industry and the World Bank in 2003, to find out what constituted good investment climate in various parts of India, it was found that water availability is one of the major infrastructural bottlenecks companies in Tamil Nadu face. The study covered 1,099 manufacturing companies in four sectors - textiles, garments, consumer electronics and pharmaceuticals - in 10 states and listed water as one of the major bottlenecks for future industrial growth in the country.
Indian industry can no longer ignore water management issues if they are to grow and become globally competitive.
As it is, everyone is fighting
Agriculture receives the greater share of the annual water allocation in India. According to the Union ministry of water resources (MoWR), 80 per cent of India’s utilisable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in the form of irrigation. Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5 per cent of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India. The industrial sector is the second highest user of water after agriculture. But we do not know how much water industries in India consume. (See table: Industrial water use...)
How much water does Indian industry consume?
The estimations of national and international agencies on industrial water use in the country vary significantly.
According to MoWR, industrial water use in India stands at about 40 billion cubic meters or nearly 6 per cent of total freshwater abstraction.
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in 2000, India’s annual fresh water withdrawals were about 500 billion cubic meter and the Indian industry consumed about 10 billion cubic meter of water as process water and 30 billion cubic meter as cooling water. Therefore, according to CPCB data, the water consumption in Indian industry accounts for about 8 per cent of the total fresh water use in the country.
Category 1990 2010 2025 2050
Irrigation 460 (88.6%) 536 (77.3%) 688 (73%) 1008 (70.9%)
Industries + Energy 34 (6.6%) 41.4 (6%) 80 (8.5%) 121 (8.5%)143 (10.1%)
Total (including others) 519 693 942 1422
Source: National commission for integrated water resources development plan, Ministry of
water resources, 1999
According to the World Bank, the water demand for industrial uses and energy production will grow at a rate of 4.2 per cent per year, rising from 67 billion cubic meter in 1999 to 228 billion cubic meter by 2025. Therefore, according to the World Bank the current industrial water use in India is about 13 per cent of the total fresh water withdrawal in the country.
Despite differences, the estimates on industrial water use by the three agencies have a point in common. All the three agencies concur that industrial water use is growing at the fastest pace in the country.
How much water does Indian industry consume?
The estimations of national and international agencies on industrial water use in the country vary significantly.
According to MoWR, industrial water use in India stands at about 40 billion cubic meters or nearly 6 per cent of total freshwater abstraction.
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in 2000, India’s annual fresh water withdrawals were about 500 billion cubic meter and the Indian industry consumed about 10 billion cubic meter of water as process water and 30 billion cubic meter as cooling water. Therefore, according to CPCB data, the water consumption in Indian industry accounts for about 8 per cent of the total fresh water use in the country.
Category 1990 2010 2025 2050
Irrigation 460 (88.6%) 536 (77.3%) 688 (73%) 1008 (70.9%)
Industries + Energy 34 (6.6%) 41.4 (6%) 80 (8.5%) 121 (8.5%)143 (10.1%)
Total (including others) 519 693 942 1422
Source: National commission for integrated water resources development plan, Ministry of
water resources, 1999
According to the World Bank, the water demand for industrial uses and energy production will grow at a rate of 4.2 per cent per year, rising from 67 billion cubic meter in 1999 to 228 billion cubic meter by 2025. Therefore, according to the World Bank the current industrial water use in India is about 13 per cent of the total fresh water withdrawal in the country.
Despite differences, the estimates on industrial water use by the three agencies have a point in common. All the three agencies concur that industrial water use is growing at the fastest pace in the country.
Tuesday, October 9, 2007
water resources assessment
World of Salt: Total Global Saltwater and Freshwater Estimates
Estimates of global water resources based on several different calculation methods have produced varied estimates. This graphic illustrates the proportions of saltwater and freshwater that make up the earth's water resources, and explains where these resources are located.
2. Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
Glaciers and icecaps contain approximately 70% of the world's freshwater, but groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater. This graphic illustrates the quantity and distribution of the world's freshwater resources in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, and in wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers.
3. Major River Basins of the World
Rivers form a hydrological mosaic, with an estimated 263 international river basins covering 45.3% of the land surface area of the earth, excluding Antarctica. This graphic shows the locations of 26 of the world's major river basins.
4. Major River Basins of Africa
This graphic shows the locations of 13 major river basins in Africa.
5. The World's Water Cycle and Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources
The water cycle consists of precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration and runoff. This graphic explains the global water cycle, showing how nearly 577 000 km3 of water circulates through the cycle each year. A table of estimated residence times of the world's water shows the estimated times that water resources exist as biospheric water, atmospheric water and so on.
6. The World's Surface Water: Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region
The world's surface water is affected by different levels of precipitation, evaporation and runoff in different regions. This graphic illustrates the different rates at which these processes affect the major regions of the world, and the resulting uneven distribution of freshwater.
7a. River Runoff through the 20th Century
River runoff is cyclical in nature, with alternating cycles of wet and dry years. These graphics show the average annual volumes of river runoff by continent and the deviations from average amounts of runoff for most of the 20th century.
7b. River Runoff through the 20th Century
7c. Variations in River Runoff by Continent through most of the 20th Century
8. Global Sediment Loads: Suspended Sediment Discharged by Region
Asia exhibits the largest runoff volumes and, therefore, the highest levels of sediment discharge. This graphic shows the amounts of suspended sediments discharged every year in the major regions of the world.
9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 1976-2000 and Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000
Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater. Alkalinity is another indicator of freshwater quality. These graphics compare the concentrations of these two factors in the major regions of the world for the periods 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000.
10. Global Average Nitrate Levels and Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels
Average concentrations of nitrate at major river mouths have not changed significantly between 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000. There have been some changes, however, in phosphate concentrations at major river mouths. These graphics compare nitrate levels and phosphate levels for 1976-1990 and 1991-2000, and illustrate the changes that have occurred between the two time periods.
11. Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) Case Studies.
The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is an example of a comprehensive strategic assessment designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters. This graphic shows GIWA case studies for the Black Sea, the Amazon, the Great Barrier Reef and the Agulhas Current.
12. Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources
GIWA's assessment tools for monitoring the world's water resources, incorporating five major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework, are now beginning to yield results of practical use for management decisions. This graphic explains the GIWA Assessment Methodology and GIWA's main environmental concerns.
13. The DPSIR Framework (Driving Forces- Pressures- Impacts- State- Responses)
The DPSIR framework is used to assess and manage environmental problems. This graphic explains the DPSIR process.
Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption
Freshwater use is partly based on several socio-economic development factors, including population, physiography, and climatic characteristics. This graphic illustrates freshwater use from 1900 to 2000 for the world's major regions, and projects freshwater use for 2000 to 2025.
15. Evolution of Global Water Use and Industrial and Domestic Consumption Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs.
Throughout the 20th century, global water use has increased in the agricultural domestic and industrial sectors. Evaporation from reservoirs has increased at a slower rate. Projections indicate that both global water use and evaporation will continue to increase.
16. Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000
The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater. This graphic shows the relative percentages of water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors in 2000.
17. Global Freshwater Withdrawal: Country Profiles Based on Agricultural, Industrial and Domestic Use
This graphic makes it possible to compare water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors at the national level.
18. Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage
The supply of safe drinking water and the provision of sanitation are management issues that raise concerns of inequitable service provision, particularly in developing countries. This graphic shows water supply and sanitation coverage in urban and rural areas, and compares global water supply and sanitation coverage with that of developing countries.
Estimates of global water resources based on several different calculation methods have produced varied estimates. This graphic illustrates the proportions of saltwater and freshwater that make up the earth's water resources, and explains where these resources are located.
2. Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
Glaciers and icecaps contain approximately 70% of the world's freshwater, but groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater. This graphic illustrates the quantity and distribution of the world's freshwater resources in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, and in wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers.
3. Major River Basins of the World
Rivers form a hydrological mosaic, with an estimated 263 international river basins covering 45.3% of the land surface area of the earth, excluding Antarctica. This graphic shows the locations of 26 of the world's major river basins.
4. Major River Basins of Africa
This graphic shows the locations of 13 major river basins in Africa.
5. The World's Water Cycle and Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources
The water cycle consists of precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration and runoff. This graphic explains the global water cycle, showing how nearly 577 000 km3 of water circulates through the cycle each year. A table of estimated residence times of the world's water shows the estimated times that water resources exist as biospheric water, atmospheric water and so on.
6. The World's Surface Water: Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region
The world's surface water is affected by different levels of precipitation, evaporation and runoff in different regions. This graphic illustrates the different rates at which these processes affect the major regions of the world, and the resulting uneven distribution of freshwater.
7a. River Runoff through the 20th Century
River runoff is cyclical in nature, with alternating cycles of wet and dry years. These graphics show the average annual volumes of river runoff by continent and the deviations from average amounts of runoff for most of the 20th century.
7b. River Runoff through the 20th Century
7c. Variations in River Runoff by Continent through most of the 20th Century
8. Global Sediment Loads: Suspended Sediment Discharged by Region
Asia exhibits the largest runoff volumes and, therefore, the highest levels of sediment discharge. This graphic shows the amounts of suspended sediments discharged every year in the major regions of the world.
9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 1976-2000 and Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000
Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater. Alkalinity is another indicator of freshwater quality. These graphics compare the concentrations of these two factors in the major regions of the world for the periods 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000.
10. Global Average Nitrate Levels and Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels
Average concentrations of nitrate at major river mouths have not changed significantly between 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000. There have been some changes, however, in phosphate concentrations at major river mouths. These graphics compare nitrate levels and phosphate levels for 1976-1990 and 1991-2000, and illustrate the changes that have occurred between the two time periods.
11. Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) Case Studies.
The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is an example of a comprehensive strategic assessment designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters. This graphic shows GIWA case studies for the Black Sea, the Amazon, the Great Barrier Reef and the Agulhas Current.
12. Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources
GIWA's assessment tools for monitoring the world's water resources, incorporating five major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework, are now beginning to yield results of practical use for management decisions. This graphic explains the GIWA Assessment Methodology and GIWA's main environmental concerns.
13. The DPSIR Framework (Driving Forces- Pressures- Impacts- State- Responses)
The DPSIR framework is used to assess and manage environmental problems. This graphic explains the DPSIR process.
Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption
Freshwater use is partly based on several socio-economic development factors, including population, physiography, and climatic characteristics. This graphic illustrates freshwater use from 1900 to 2000 for the world's major regions, and projects freshwater use for 2000 to 2025.
15. Evolution of Global Water Use and Industrial and Domestic Consumption Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs.
Throughout the 20th century, global water use has increased in the agricultural domestic and industrial sectors. Evaporation from reservoirs has increased at a slower rate. Projections indicate that both global water use and evaporation will continue to increase.
16. Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000
The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater. This graphic shows the relative percentages of water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors in 2000.
17. Global Freshwater Withdrawal: Country Profiles Based on Agricultural, Industrial and Domestic Use
This graphic makes it possible to compare water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors at the national level.
18. Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage
The supply of safe drinking water and the provision of sanitation are management issues that raise concerns of inequitable service provision, particularly in developing countries. This graphic shows water supply and sanitation coverage in urban and rural areas, and compares global water supply and sanitation coverage with that of developing countries.
United Nations Environment Program
The total volume of water on Earth is about 1 400 million km3 of which only 2.5 per cent, or about 35 million km3, is freshwater (see table below). Most freshwater occurs in the form of permanent ice or snow, locked up in Antarctica and Greenland, or in deep groundwater aquifers. The principal sources of water for human use are lakes, rivers, soil moisture and relatively shallow groundwater basins. The usable portion of these sources is only about 200 000 km3 of water - less than 1 per cent of all freshwater and only 0.01 per cent of all water on Earth. Much of this available water is located far from human populations, further complicating issues of water use.
The replenishment of freshwater depends on evaporation from the surface of the oceans. About 505 000 km3, or a layer 1.4 metres thick, evaporates from the oceans annually. Another 72 000 km3 evaporates from the land. About 80 per cent of all precipitation, or about 458 000 km3/year, falls on the oceans and the remaining 119 000 km3/year on land. The difference between precipitation on land surfaces and evaporation from those surfaces (119 000 km3 minus 72 000 km3 annually) is run-off and groundwater recharge - approximately 47 000 km3 annually (Gleick 1993). The figure opposite shows one estimate of the average annual water balance of major continental areas, including precipitation, evaporation and run-off. More than one-half of all run-off occurs in Asia and South America, and a large fraction occurs in a single river, the Amazon, which carries more than 6 000 km3 of water a year (Shiklomanov 1999)
The replenishment of freshwater depends on evaporation from the surface of the oceans. About 505 000 km3, or a layer 1.4 metres thick, evaporates from the oceans annually. Another 72 000 km3 evaporates from the land. About 80 per cent of all precipitation, or about 458 000 km3/year, falls on the oceans and the remaining 119 000 km3/year on land. The difference between precipitation on land surfaces and evaporation from those surfaces (119 000 km3 minus 72 000 km3 annually) is run-off and groundwater recharge - approximately 47 000 km3 annually (Gleick 1993). The figure opposite shows one estimate of the average annual water balance of major continental areas, including precipitation, evaporation and run-off. More than one-half of all run-off occurs in Asia and South America, and a large fraction occurs in a single river, the Amazon, which carries more than 6 000 km3 of water a year (Shiklomanov 1999)
United Nations Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been at the forefront of assessing and monitoring global water resources and presenting information on their use and management for 30 years. UNEP has compiled this report in order to provide an easily accessible resource on the state of the world's waters. The goal of this publication is to produce a clear overview, through a set of graphics, maps and other illustrations, of the state of the world's fresh and marine waters. It also illustrates the causes, effects, trends and threats facing our water sources, with examples of areas of major concern and future scenarios for the use and management of fresh, coastal and marine waters.
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Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition by 2025.
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Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition by 2025.
cost of managing and treating the world's water
Smith Barney, the New York-based brokerage firm, estimates the cost of managing and treating the world's water and wastewater has become a $300 billion industry, while other sources place that figure in the $500 billion range.
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