Reverse osmosis (RO):
RO use for wastewater recycling and reuse process has become quite common.
RO systems are compact, simple to operate, and require minimal labor, making them suitable for all systems.
RO can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants, nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions from water.
RO is particularly effective when used in series.
Water passing through multiple units can achieve near-zero effluent contaminant concentrations.
Tuesday, October 16, 2007
CASE STUDY
Cooling water in Indian Thermal Power Plants (TPPs)
According to CPCB's report on Water Quality in India 1990-2001 status and trends of the total wastewater discharged from all major industrial sectors, 80.3 per cent is cooling water generated just from TPPs. Therefore, closing the cooling water cycle should be the priority of Indian industry and the regulators alike.
Two cooling technologies are in use today:
Once-through cooling system: This system requires the intake of a continual flow of cooling water. The water demand for the once-through system is 30 to 50 times that of a closed cycle system. Most Indian TPPs operate this system.
Closed-cycle systems: This system discharges heat through evaporation in cooling towers and recycles water within the power plant. The water required to do this is comparatively small since it is limited to the amount lost through the evaporative process. Because of the expense associated with closed-cycle cooling, once-through systems are far more common. Some recently commissioned Indian TPPs employ this technology.
In once-through cooling system approximately 100 litres of water is required to produce 1 Kwh electricity. In badly managed TPPs this could go up to 200 litres. In comparison in a closed-cycle system, about 2-3 litres water is required to generate 1 Kwh electricity.
By converting all Indian TPPs to closed-cycle cooling system, by rough estimation almost 65,000 mld or 24 billion m3 fresh water can be saved. This is roughly equivalent to India's total domestic water requirement.
In closed-cycle cooling towers water is lost due to evaporation, windage and drift and intentional blow down. These losses are about 1.5-2 per cent of the recirculation rate. Currently fresh water is used as makeup in Indian industry. But with proper treatment of process wastewater and effective chemical treatment to control corrosion and fouling, wastewater can be easily reused in the cooling towers, reducing the freshwater intake for cooling to zero.
In general, combined primary (sedimentation) and secondary (biological oxidation, disinfection) treatment of wastewater is sufficient to make it suitable for cooling towers. Currently most large and medium scale Indian companies are required to treat their wastewater till secondary treatment to meet the pollution norms. Therefore, in these companies no additional investment is required for treating the wastewater and reusing it in cooling towers.
A wide range of chemicals are available today which can reduce the danger of corrosion and scaling in the cooling tower equipment thereby enabling the use of treated effluent as cooling water. Many companies outside India are using treated effluent as cooling water quite successfully. In places where fresh water is quite costly, use of treated effluent as cooling water presents substantial financial gain for the companies.
WATER RECYCLING AND REUSEWastewater treatment and recycling at industrial level with RO
Agency/project Technology used Capital cost (Rs crore) Operation and maintenance costs (Rs/kl)
Madras Fertilizers Limited, Chennai Size: 15.12 MLD 12.24 MLD is recycled to the cooling towers
and from this plant 3.0 MLD fresh water is
being supplied to Chennai City
Reverse 14.5 40-50
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (earlier known as Madras Refineries Limited) Size: 11.25 MLD
Treated water used for cooling towers
The quality of treated water is BOD-2 mg/l;
TDS- 30 mg/l; COD- 5.0 mg/l
Reverse Osmosis 20 43
GMR Power corporation, Chennai Size: 7. 2 MLD Treated water used for cooling towers Secondary and tertiary treatment followed by Reverse Osmosis 17.5 25
Source: i Showing the world the way, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
ii Conserving Water at MRL, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
iii Generating Clean Power, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 200
Membrane Technologies
A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material separating substances when a driving force is applied across it. Once considered a viable technology for desalination, membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal of bacteria and other microorganisms, particulate material, organic and inorganic chemicals and colour and other contaminants. As advances are made in membrane production and module design, capital and operating costs continue to decline. The pressure-driven membrane processes are essentially of four different kinds: micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano filtration and reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis (RO): RO use for wastewater recycling and reuse process has become quite common. O systems are compact, simple to operate, and require minimal labor, making them suitable for all systems. RO can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants, nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions from water. RO is particularly effective when used in series. Water passing through multiple units can achieve near-zero effluent contaminant concentrations.
The pre-treatment section, where the feed is treated by chemical clarification (precipitation, coagulation/flocculation or flotation) and subsequent filtration, or by filtration and subsequent ultra filtration
The membrane section, where high pressure is applied and the waste water is cross-flowed across the membrane
The post-treatment section, where the permeate is prepared for reuse or discharge, and the concentrate brine is collected for further work-up or for disposal
The capital and operating and maintenance cost of RO systems are become quite competitive with the increasing cost of buying water in water-scarce areas. For instance, the cost of treating municipal sewage water by RO in Chennai is in the range of Rs 25-50 per m3 (See: Wastewater treatment...). This is similar (in cases even lower) to the cost of fresh water charged by the Madras Water Supply & Sewage Board.
According to CPCB's report on Water Quality in India 1990-2001 status and trends of the total wastewater discharged from all major industrial sectors, 80.3 per cent is cooling water generated just from TPPs. Therefore, closing the cooling water cycle should be the priority of Indian industry and the regulators alike.
Two cooling technologies are in use today:
Once-through cooling system: This system requires the intake of a continual flow of cooling water. The water demand for the once-through system is 30 to 50 times that of a closed cycle system. Most Indian TPPs operate this system.
Closed-cycle systems: This system discharges heat through evaporation in cooling towers and recycles water within the power plant. The water required to do this is comparatively small since it is limited to the amount lost through the evaporative process. Because of the expense associated with closed-cycle cooling, once-through systems are far more common. Some recently commissioned Indian TPPs employ this technology.
In once-through cooling system approximately 100 litres of water is required to produce 1 Kwh electricity. In badly managed TPPs this could go up to 200 litres. In comparison in a closed-cycle system, about 2-3 litres water is required to generate 1 Kwh electricity.
By converting all Indian TPPs to closed-cycle cooling system, by rough estimation almost 65,000 mld or 24 billion m3 fresh water can be saved. This is roughly equivalent to India's total domestic water requirement.
In closed-cycle cooling towers water is lost due to evaporation, windage and drift and intentional blow down. These losses are about 1.5-2 per cent of the recirculation rate. Currently fresh water is used as makeup in Indian industry. But with proper treatment of process wastewater and effective chemical treatment to control corrosion and fouling, wastewater can be easily reused in the cooling towers, reducing the freshwater intake for cooling to zero.
In general, combined primary (sedimentation) and secondary (biological oxidation, disinfection) treatment of wastewater is sufficient to make it suitable for cooling towers. Currently most large and medium scale Indian companies are required to treat their wastewater till secondary treatment to meet the pollution norms. Therefore, in these companies no additional investment is required for treating the wastewater and reusing it in cooling towers.
A wide range of chemicals are available today which can reduce the danger of corrosion and scaling in the cooling tower equipment thereby enabling the use of treated effluent as cooling water. Many companies outside India are using treated effluent as cooling water quite successfully. In places where fresh water is quite costly, use of treated effluent as cooling water presents substantial financial gain for the companies.
WATER RECYCLING AND REUSEWastewater treatment and recycling at industrial level with RO
Agency/project Technology used Capital cost (Rs crore) Operation and maintenance costs (Rs/kl)
Madras Fertilizers Limited, Chennai Size: 15.12 MLD 12.24 MLD is recycled to the cooling towers
and from this plant 3.0 MLD fresh water is
being supplied to Chennai City
Reverse 14.5 40-50
Chennai Petroleum Corporation Limited (earlier known as Madras Refineries Limited) Size: 11.25 MLD
Treated water used for cooling towers
The quality of treated water is BOD-2 mg/l;
TDS- 30 mg/l; COD- 5.0 mg/l
Reverse Osmosis 20 43
GMR Power corporation, Chennai Size: 7. 2 MLD Treated water used for cooling towers Secondary and tertiary treatment followed by Reverse Osmosis 17.5 25
Source: i Showing the world the way, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
ii Conserving Water at MRL, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 2001
iii Generating Clean Power, EverythingAboutWater, May-June, 200
Membrane Technologies
A semipermeable membrane is a thin layer of material separating substances when a driving force is applied across it. Once considered a viable technology for desalination, membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal of bacteria and other microorganisms, particulate material, organic and inorganic chemicals and colour and other contaminants. As advances are made in membrane production and module design, capital and operating costs continue to decline. The pressure-driven membrane processes are essentially of four different kinds: micro filtration, ultra filtration, nano filtration and reverse osmosis.
Reverse osmosis (RO): RO use for wastewater recycling and reuse process has become quite common. O systems are compact, simple to operate, and require minimal labor, making them suitable for all systems. RO can effectively remove nearly all inorganic contaminants, nearly all contaminant ions and most dissolved non-ions from water. RO is particularly effective when used in series. Water passing through multiple units can achieve near-zero effluent contaminant concentrations.
The pre-treatment section, where the feed is treated by chemical clarification (precipitation, coagulation/flocculation or flotation) and subsequent filtration, or by filtration and subsequent ultra filtration
The membrane section, where high pressure is applied and the waste water is cross-flowed across the membrane
The post-treatment section, where the permeate is prepared for reuse or discharge, and the concentrate brine is collected for further work-up or for disposal
The capital and operating and maintenance cost of RO systems are become quite competitive with the increasing cost of buying water in water-scarce areas. For instance, the cost of treating municipal sewage water by RO in Chennai is in the range of Rs 25-50 per m3 (See: Wastewater treatment...). This is similar (in cases even lower) to the cost of fresh water charged by the Madras Water Supply & Sewage Board.
Solving the water problem
The key to the problem lies in effective management of water resources. An integrated approach involving water treatment, source reduction, reuse of process water, effluent treatment, recycling of treated effluent and waste-minimisation is urgently required.
Improve process technology: Clean and advanced process technologies can help industry reduce its water demand. For instance, by replacing the conventional bleaching process with totally chlorine bleaching process, pulp and paper companies can almost close their water cycle. But they are costly.
Reuse process water: This involves reusing water in a series, in an open system, for two or more successive but different purposes. This enables use of poor quality water for more than one purpose.
Recirculate process water: Indefinite reuse of same water after treatment for the same purpose. Makeup water is to be used only to replace unavoidable losses. This is far cheaper than installing new process technology and recent technological development has made sure that it can be used by any type of industry.
Rainwater harvesting: This helps industries meet a substantial part of their annual water requirement even as demand on local sources is minimised.
Technology is not the bottleneck
There are enough technologies to solve all water problems and what is more, the prices of these technologies are gradually decreasing. In a nutshell, it quite feasible today for an Indian industry to substantially reduce its water consumption and wastewater discharge by putting efficient systems for recycling and reusing the process water. But for this to happen government policy needs to be overhauled.
Improve process technology: Clean and advanced process technologies can help industry reduce its water demand. For instance, by replacing the conventional bleaching process with totally chlorine bleaching process, pulp and paper companies can almost close their water cycle. But they are costly.
Reuse process water: This involves reusing water in a series, in an open system, for two or more successive but different purposes. This enables use of poor quality water for more than one purpose.
Recirculate process water: Indefinite reuse of same water after treatment for the same purpose. Makeup water is to be used only to replace unavoidable losses. This is far cheaper than installing new process technology and recent technological development has made sure that it can be used by any type of industry.
Rainwater harvesting: This helps industries meet a substantial part of their annual water requirement even as demand on local sources is minimised.
Technology is not the bottleneck
There are enough technologies to solve all water problems and what is more, the prices of these technologies are gradually decreasing. In a nutshell, it quite feasible today for an Indian industry to substantially reduce its water consumption and wastewater discharge by putting efficient systems for recycling and reusing the process water. But for this to happen government policy needs to be overhauled.
Industry can improve
the technology to do so exists. But does the will?
Water use in Indian industry is very high due to a combination of factors including obsolete process technology, poor recycling and reuse practices and poor wastewater treatment. Water once used is generally thrown without any further use, even if the water is not much contaminated. Segregation of wastewater from various processes into clean wastewater, (that can be reused) and contaminated water is not commonly done. The result is that even the uncontaminated water gets contaminated after mixing and is discharged as effluent.
Indian industry, especially thermal power plants, consume majority of their water for cooling requirements. Majority of industries use 'once-through cooling systems', in which water once used for cooling is discharged. Similarly, reuse of non-contact steam condensate is also not favoured in India, though it is virtually clean and can be reused by reducing the total dissolved solids (TDS).
The wastewater treatment system in Indian industry is essentially installed to meet the wastewater discharge norms. The design principles do not consider the possibility of recycling and reusing the wastewater. Inevitably, in all industries the wastewater discharged is seldom suitable for reuse within the industry, though industry expects other users to reuse its wastewater because it is 'treated'. Most industries have their water intake points upstream of their wastewater discharge points. This itself exemplifies the quality and interest of wastewater treatment by Indian industry.
Water use in Indian industry is very high due to a combination of factors including obsolete process technology, poor recycling and reuse practices and poor wastewater treatment. Water once used is generally thrown without any further use, even if the water is not much contaminated. Segregation of wastewater from various processes into clean wastewater, (that can be reused) and contaminated water is not commonly done. The result is that even the uncontaminated water gets contaminated after mixing and is discharged as effluent.
Indian industry, especially thermal power plants, consume majority of their water for cooling requirements. Majority of industries use 'once-through cooling systems', in which water once used for cooling is discharged. Similarly, reuse of non-contact steam condensate is also not favoured in India, though it is virtually clean and can be reused by reducing the total dissolved solids (TDS).
The wastewater treatment system in Indian industry is essentially installed to meet the wastewater discharge norms. The design principles do not consider the possibility of recycling and reusing the wastewater. Inevitably, in all industries the wastewater discharged is seldom suitable for reuse within the industry, though industry expects other users to reuse its wastewater because it is 'treated'. Most industries have their water intake points upstream of their wastewater discharge points. This itself exemplifies the quality and interest of wastewater treatment by Indian industry.
Too many cooks Spoil the water management broth.
Ministry of water resource (MoWR): It is the principle agency responsible for water in India but water pollution does not fall under its purview, nor does the industrial use of water.
Ministry of Industry (MoI): It is concerned with the planning and development of water resources for industrial use. It has no mandate to control or regulate the water use by industries.
Central Ground Water Board/Authority (CGWB/A): Meant to regulate the groundwater quality and quantity in the country. Though they have mandate to do what they can with groundwater, they have so far only mapped the groundwater status. They have no mandate to charge industrial groundwater use.
Ministry of Power (MoP): Entrusted with development of hydroelectricity, but has no mandate to look after either water consumption or water pollution by the thermal power plants. And this despite the fact that they consume as much as three-fourths of the total industrial water in the country.
Water Quality Assessment Authority (WQAA): Frustrated with the multiplicity of agencies MoEF & MoWR decided to set up this apex body to compile information on water quality and monitor the function of the agencies. But since its constitution, WQAA has only met twice and no progress has been made on its agenda.
Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF): It is concerned with the quality of surface and ground water. But it has no mandate to control use of water as raw material. But it has no mandate to handle water scarcity, nor any power to resolve water conflicts.
Central and State Pollution Control Board (CPCB) & (SPCBs): These regulate industrial water pollution and charge water cess based on the amount of wastewater discharged by the companies. But they have no mandate to control sourcing of water from various sources.
Ministry of Rural Development (MoRD): Its responsibilities are: watershed development, the Million Wells Scheme, the Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission and developing the source of drinking water in rural areas. But ensuring availability of water and testing for water contamination is not its responsibility.
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD): It is responsible for drinking water in urban areas but doesn't have the mandate to monitor, regulate or charge water used by industries in urban areas.
Just use it
Poor laws and regulations and lack of coordination between regulatory bodies worsen the water crisis
There is no concrete government policy on industrial water use. The existing policies are merely a atchwork of public health and water availability concerns.
Regulating use
GLOBAL: Countries across the world set water consumption standards and targets for industries to achieve, and regularly revise the standards in a bid to control water use. China, for instance, sets water targets for major water consuming industrial sectors. According to the report of China Water Conservation Agency, the first national quotas for industrial water consumption will push companies to save as much as 6 billion cubic meters of water a year by 2005. Similar water saving targets are fixed across the developed world.
INDIA: In India, as of now, there is no law determining the exact amount of water meant for consumption by the various industrial sectors. Though CPCB has prescribed water consumption levels for some industrial sectors, they are mere recommendations and cannot be enforced by laws. India also has some obsolete laws related to groundwater extraction. In Indian law, the person who owns the land also owns the groundwater below. Though this law has some relevance as far as the domestic groundwater use is concerned, it is outright absurd for industrial and commercial use. The result is that today, industries withdraw groundwater that remains unregulated and unpriced.
Regulating pollution
GLOBAL: Regulators are shifting from concentration-based standards to pollution load based standards. The pollution load-based standards determine the total amount of pollutant generated for per unit production. The pollution load-based standards also use the quota system for the amount of water allowed to various industries and therefore, with this standard pollution levels are monitored, as also the amount of freshwater consumed. This forces companies to reduce fresh water consumption as they save on water cost. Also, by introducing 'polluter pays principle' regulators push companies to reduce the total pollution load. Therefore, with the help of pollution load-based standards coupled with the 'polluter pays principle', regulators across the world are reducing fresh water consumption as well as water pollution by industries.
INDIA: In India both these principles are absent. The result is that industries use more freshwater and discharge more pollutants through wastewater and still meet the legal standards. The industrial water pollution standards in the country are concentration based, that is, they measure the concentration of pollution in a given quantity of water. The result is that an industry can meet the required standard merely by diluting the effluent with clean water. Since the cost of water is low, it makes more economic sense for an industry to dilute the effluent than to treat it to meet the standards. l
National Water Policy: Industry is let off!
The issues related to the industrial water have been addressed in vague and fragmented form in National Water Policy (NWP) released in 2002. No clear vision for regulating and controlling industrial water use has been given. The policies stated in NWP, 2002 are just not sufficient to result in modern control and regulation of the industrial water use as an integrated whole.
The entire document of 6000 words mentions industry just 6 times, unmindful of the environmental concerns industrial water use poses.
Water policy says:
Effluents should be treated to levels and standards that are acceptable before discharging them into natural streams.
Comment: Does not address the issue of pollution load. The current standards for industrial effluents are concentration- based, which does not provides incentive for reducing water use or pollution loads.
Principle of 'polluter pays' should be followed in management of polluted water.
Comment: Advocates 'polluter pays' principle' but is silent on extent of payment. Current water cess charged by pollution control boards is a 'polluter pays' regime, but the quantum of payment is so low that there is no incentive or disincentive for the industry for reducing wastewater discharge and hence water use.
Economic development and activities, including agriculture, industry and urban development, should be planned with due regard to the constraints imposed by the configuration of water availability. There should be a water zoning of the country and the economic activities should be guided and regulated in accordance with such zoning.
Comment: Unless addressed in the industrial policy, it has no significance.
Efficiency of utilisation in all the diverse uses of water should be optimised and an awareness of water as a scarce resource should be fostered. Conservation consciousness should be promoted through education, regulation, incentives and disincentives.
Comment: Vague and indifferent.
The resources should be conserved and the availability augmented by maximising retention, eliminating pollution and minimising losses. For this, measures such as selective linings in the conveyance system, modernisation and rehabilitation of existing systems including tanks, recycling and re-use of treated effluents and adoption of traditional techniques like mulching or pitcher irrigation and new techniques like drip and sprinkler may be promoted, wherever feasible.
Comment: Vague and indifferent.
people and industry both suffer!!!1
SIV Industries
One of the few integrated viscose rayon manufacturers in India, SIV Industries was established in 1964. It is situated upstream river Bhavani in Sirumugai village of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu. The mill used river water and discharged its treated effluent back into river Bhavani.
Villagers living downstream used the water for drinking, irrigation and other household activities. They lodged complaints such as discoloration of water, skin allergies and a decline in crop productivity due to the usage of contaminated water.
The Bhavani river agitation was marked with protests by the local community mobilised by NGOs - Bhavani River Protection Joint Council and Lower Bhavani Projects Ryots Association.
Following the wide-scale protests by the local community as well as the directives of the Pollution Control Board and the High Court, the mill invested substantially to upgrade its pollution control equipment. It imported technology from a foreign agency (Linde, Germany) specifically for effluent treatment. The mill also started discharging its wastewater into its own land for the irrigation of crops.
But this entire episode took its toll and the industry is currently not operational.
Sinar Mas Pulp and Paper Mills Ltd.
Sinar Mas Pulp & Paper (India) Ltd. (SMPPIL) was set up in 1997 on the Pune-Solapur highway near Pune, Maharashtra. The mill met its entire requirement from Ujjani dam. Since the imported pulp is dry, SMPPIL consumed a large quantity of water during its papermaking process and the treated effluent was discharged through a 12 km long pipeline into river Nira.
The local communities in and around the region were against the mill for various reasons. To begin with, the water from Ujjani dam was originally meant for irrigation of drought-prone areas. Secondly, there was the fear that usage of water by Sinar Mas would lead to water shortage for sugarcane growers in Solapur and Indrapur, which in turn would affect the sugar co-operative factories.
To make matters worse, the local community was also upset at the preferential treatment given to the industry by the government, namely, cheaper rates for tankers (it was alleged that the government was charging only Rs 3 per 10,000 litre tanker from the company whereas farmers and villagers had to pay about Rs 100 per tanker). The industry was also assured that they would be provided water from the dam for eight months. But villagers received no such assurance.
As a spillover of this conflict more than 20 cases were filed against the company in various courts. The company thereafter reduced its water consumption significantly and today it is one of the lowest water-consuming paper mills in the country. It took almost five years for the company to regain confidence of the local community.
Currently the mill is functioning under the name of Ballarpur Graphics Paperboards Ltd.
Grasim Industries (GIL) - Mavoor Unit
The Mavoor unit of Grasim Industries is situated on the banks of river Chaliyar in Kozhikode district of Kerala. The unit produced rayon grade pulp. The unit used to discharge its treated effluent into river Chaliyar. Over 200,000 people live on the banks of the Chaliyar and the discharge of effluents by the mill was one of the main reasons of conflict between the local
community and the mill.
Complaints of pollution of river, fish deaths and lack of adequate treatment facility at the unit began pouring in. There were also several health related complaints, such as high incidence of cancer in the region.
The mill failed to lay down a pipeline to Chungapally (seven km downstream) to discharge its effluents directly into the estuary area, as per its agreement with the state government in 1974. Several complaints were also lodged against the mill with the local pollution control board, and at various forums. Finally, due to prolonged public agitation in the area, on May 5, 1997, the government of Kerala formed a committee to study in detail the pollution problems caused by the industry and recommend solutions.
The committee made 28 recommendations after conducting a detailed study and interacting with the local community. The government accepted them and Kerala State Pollution Control Board gave time-bound directions to the mill in July 1998 to implement the recommendations within one year.
Instead, the mill decided it was time to close down.
One of the few integrated viscose rayon manufacturers in India, SIV Industries was established in 1964. It is situated upstream river Bhavani in Sirumugai village of Coimbatore district, Tamil Nadu. The mill used river water and discharged its treated effluent back into river Bhavani.
Villagers living downstream used the water for drinking, irrigation and other household activities. They lodged complaints such as discoloration of water, skin allergies and a decline in crop productivity due to the usage of contaminated water.
The Bhavani river agitation was marked with protests by the local community mobilised by NGOs - Bhavani River Protection Joint Council and Lower Bhavani Projects Ryots Association.
Following the wide-scale protests by the local community as well as the directives of the Pollution Control Board and the High Court, the mill invested substantially to upgrade its pollution control equipment. It imported technology from a foreign agency (Linde, Germany) specifically for effluent treatment. The mill also started discharging its wastewater into its own land for the irrigation of crops.
But this entire episode took its toll and the industry is currently not operational.
Sinar Mas Pulp and Paper Mills Ltd.
Sinar Mas Pulp & Paper (India) Ltd. (SMPPIL) was set up in 1997 on the Pune-Solapur highway near Pune, Maharashtra. The mill met its entire requirement from Ujjani dam. Since the imported pulp is dry, SMPPIL consumed a large quantity of water during its papermaking process and the treated effluent was discharged through a 12 km long pipeline into river Nira.
The local communities in and around the region were against the mill for various reasons. To begin with, the water from Ujjani dam was originally meant for irrigation of drought-prone areas. Secondly, there was the fear that usage of water by Sinar Mas would lead to water shortage for sugarcane growers in Solapur and Indrapur, which in turn would affect the sugar co-operative factories.
To make matters worse, the local community was also upset at the preferential treatment given to the industry by the government, namely, cheaper rates for tankers (it was alleged that the government was charging only Rs 3 per 10,000 litre tanker from the company whereas farmers and villagers had to pay about Rs 100 per tanker). The industry was also assured that they would be provided water from the dam for eight months. But villagers received no such assurance.
As a spillover of this conflict more than 20 cases were filed against the company in various courts. The company thereafter reduced its water consumption significantly and today it is one of the lowest water-consuming paper mills in the country. It took almost five years for the company to regain confidence of the local community.
Currently the mill is functioning under the name of Ballarpur Graphics Paperboards Ltd.
Grasim Industries (GIL) - Mavoor Unit
The Mavoor unit of Grasim Industries is situated on the banks of river Chaliyar in Kozhikode district of Kerala. The unit produced rayon grade pulp. The unit used to discharge its treated effluent into river Chaliyar. Over 200,000 people live on the banks of the Chaliyar and the discharge of effluents by the mill was one of the main reasons of conflict between the local
community and the mill.
Complaints of pollution of river, fish deaths and lack of adequate treatment facility at the unit began pouring in. There were also several health related complaints, such as high incidence of cancer in the region.
The mill failed to lay down a pipeline to Chungapally (seven km downstream) to discharge its effluents directly into the estuary area, as per its agreement with the state government in 1974. Several complaints were also lodged against the mill with the local pollution control board, and at various forums. Finally, due to prolonged public agitation in the area, on May 5, 1997, the government of Kerala formed a committee to study in detail the pollution problems caused by the industry and recommend solutions.
The committee made 28 recommendations after conducting a detailed study and interacting with the local community. The government accepted them and Kerala State Pollution Control Board gave time-bound directions to the mill in July 1998 to implement the recommendations within one year.
Instead, the mill decided it was time to close down.
Wherever there is conflict, a commmunity suffers. So does industry
Water scarcity
It is a bottleneck for industrial development in the various states of India
In 2002, companies like Harihar Polyfibres Limited, Karnataka and the Indian Rayon plant, Nagda shut shop for a few days. Inducing them to take such a step was the non-availability of water.
Water scarcity is already taking its toll on industrial production. In summers, when most Indian rivers run dry, it is not uncommon to see companies closing shop.
In a study undertaken by the Confedaration of Indian Industry and the World Bank in 2003, to find out what constituted good investment climate in various parts of India, it was found that water availability is one of the major infrastructural bottlenecks companies in Tamil Nadu face. The study covered 1,099 manufacturing companies in four sectors - textiles, garments, consumer electronics and pharmaceuticals - in 10 states and listed water as one of the major bottlenecks for future industrial growth in the country.
Indian industry can no longer ignore water management issues if they are to grow and become globally competitive.
It is a bottleneck for industrial development in the various states of India
In 2002, companies like Harihar Polyfibres Limited, Karnataka and the Indian Rayon plant, Nagda shut shop for a few days. Inducing them to take such a step was the non-availability of water.
Water scarcity is already taking its toll on industrial production. In summers, when most Indian rivers run dry, it is not uncommon to see companies closing shop.
In a study undertaken by the Confedaration of Indian Industry and the World Bank in 2003, to find out what constituted good investment climate in various parts of India, it was found that water availability is one of the major infrastructural bottlenecks companies in Tamil Nadu face. The study covered 1,099 manufacturing companies in four sectors - textiles, garments, consumer electronics and pharmaceuticals - in 10 states and listed water as one of the major bottlenecks for future industrial growth in the country.
Indian industry can no longer ignore water management issues if they are to grow and become globally competitive.
Water fall-outs
Industrial water use has triggered off a host of problems
In developed and developing countries alike, competition among water users is increasing. Tensions are particularly high in water-scarce areas where domestic, agricultural and industrial water needs are pitted against each other. In developing countries like India, where every segment of the economy is growing rapidly, the conflict will become unmanageable if not addressed now. Even today most big cities in India are getting piped water from far-off places. This is putting tremendous
pressure on the local population whose water is being snatched to feed urban and industrial growth.
This practice, also known as the "zero sum game of water management", is one where authorities increase water supply to one user by taking it away from another. This practice almost invariably leads to discontent in the different parts of the country.
Industry-community conflict
A major outcome of increasing industrial water use has been the increase in conflict between local communities and the industry on issues ranging from water pollution to water scarcity. In areas where there is water scarcity, industries are under tremendous pressure from community and government alike to reduce water use.
Depletion of groundwater by industries, supply of water meant for irrigation to industries, preferential treatment given to industries by the government are some of the major reasons for the conflict between industry and community over water use.
Another major reason for this ongoing conflict is water pollution. Protest and public interest litigations have become quite common on this issue.
In developed and developing countries alike, competition among water users is increasing. Tensions are particularly high in water-scarce areas where domestic, agricultural and industrial water needs are pitted against each other. In developing countries like India, where every segment of the economy is growing rapidly, the conflict will become unmanageable if not addressed now. Even today most big cities in India are getting piped water from far-off places. This is putting tremendous
pressure on the local population whose water is being snatched to feed urban and industrial growth.
This practice, also known as the "zero sum game of water management", is one where authorities increase water supply to one user by taking it away from another. This practice almost invariably leads to discontent in the different parts of the country.
Industry-community conflict
A major outcome of increasing industrial water use has been the increase in conflict between local communities and the industry on issues ranging from water pollution to water scarcity. In areas where there is water scarcity, industries are under tremendous pressure from community and government alike to reduce water use.
Depletion of groundwater by industries, supply of water meant for irrigation to industries, preferential treatment given to industries by the government are some of the major reasons for the conflict between industry and community over water use.
Another major reason for this ongoing conflict is water pollution. Protest and public interest litigations have become quite common on this issue.
To use or to misuse
That is the question industries need to think over
Water use in industry is a double-edged sword. On one hand it puts immense pressure on local water resources. On the other, wastewater discharged from the industry pollutes the local environment. Water is required, often in large volumes, by industries as process inputs in most industries. In other cases, like food and beverage and chlor-alkali industry, water is used as a raw material: turned into a manufactured product and exported out of the local water system.
However, in most industries it is essentially used as input and mass and heat transfer media. In these industries a very small fraction of water is actually consumed and lost. Most of the water is
actually meant for non-consumptive process uses and is ultimately discharged as effluent.
Quantity and quality
The amount of water available matters but so also does its quality. Industry requires water of good quality for its use, and for this it uses cleaner upstream water. However, the water it discharges is always of lower quality than the feed water and this wastewater is discharged downstream. At best the wastewater discharged represents a quality that can be recycled for lower grade of industrial use and at worst represents water quality which is unsuitable for every use other than navigational puposes. In other words, this water is unfit for usage, is seldom used by the industries and usually used for certain agricultural purposes or by villagers to meet their daily needs.
Of wastes and wants: Water use in India
Industrial Sector Annual
wastewater water
discharge
(million cubic
meters) (%)
Annual
consumption (million cubic meters) Proportion
of water consumed in industry
Thermal power plants 27000.9 35157.4 87.87
Engineering 1551.3 2019.9 5.05
Pulp and paper 695.7 905.8 2.26
Textiles 637.3 829.8 2.07
Steel 396.8 516.6 1.29
Sugar 149.7 194.9 0.49
Fertiliser 56.4 73.5 0.18
Others 241.3 314.2 0.78
Total 30729.2 40012.0 100.0
Note: For methodology see www.downtoearth.org.in
Source: Estimated by CSE based on the wastewater discharged data published by CPCB in "Water quality in India (Status and trends) 1990 - 2001".
Major consumers
Water consumption depends on the type of industry. Whereas thermal power, textiles, pulp and paper and iron and steel are highly water intensive sectors, industrial sectors like chlor-alkali, cement, copper and zinc and plastics require little water.
Data on actual water consumption in India is absent. However, the data on wastewater discharge by various industrial sectors in the country is available. The data on wastewater discharge has been complied by CPCB. According to CPCB, the total wastewater discharged by all major industrial sources is 83,048 million litres per day (mld). This includes 66,700 mld of cooling water discharged by thermal power plants (TPPs). Out of the remaining 16,348 mld of wastewater, TPPs generates another 7,275 mld as boiler blowdown water and overflow from ash pond.
Is it possible...
In the absence of data on actual water consumption is it possible to chalk out a water consumption pattern for Indian industry? The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has attempted to arrive at an estimate based on the wastewater data of CPCB.
According to CPCB the annual water consumption in Indian industry is 40 billion cubic meters and the annual wastewater discharge is about 30.7 billion cubic meter. Therefore, the overall ratio of wastewater discharged to freshwater consumption in Indian industry works out to be about 0.77. That is, for every cubic meter of water consumed by
Indian industry, 0.77 cubic meters of wastewater is discharged. Considering this, CSE has estimated the possible water consumption in various industrial sectors in India (See table: Of wastes...).
Guzzlers
Inefficent water use by industry
The ratio of water consumption and economic value creation in Indian industry is poor. For every cubic metre of water that Indian industry uses, it generates merely US $7.5
economic productivity
Country Industrial water use (billion cubic metres) Industrial productivity (million US $) Industrial water productivity (US $ / cubic metre)
Argentina 2.6 77171.0 30.0
Brazil 9.9 231442.0 23.4
India 15.0 113041.0 7.5
Korea, Rep. 2.6 249268.0 95.6
Norway 1.4 47599.0 35.0
Sweden 0.8 74703.0 92.2
Thailand 1.3 64800.0 48.9
United Kingdom 0.7 330097.0 443.7
Source: World Bank, 2001
Thermal Power Plants (TPPs): Most TPPs in India are owned by the government. Indian TPPs are one of the highest consumers of water as compared to their global counterparts. On an average, for every 1000 Kwh power, Indian TPPs consume as much as 80 cubic meters of water. The water consumption in the modern TPPs in developed countries is less than 10 cubic meters for every 1000 Kwh. The major reason for this atrocious figure is the widespread prevalence of 'once-through cooling systems'.
Pulp and paper: Water consumption in Indian pulp and paper industry is significantly higher than in developed countries:
l Complete discharge of paper machine wastewater, which can be recycled easily.
l Use of chlorine-based bleaching technology in wood and non-wood based mills. Due to the presence of chlorine compounds in the bleach wastewater, it cannot be used as 'black liquor' for energy generation and hence is discharged.
Textiles: The textile industry in India guzzles double the accepted amount for consumption.Why is this so? A major factor is obsolete technology which permits minimum recycling and reuse of process water. For instance, most textile mills in India do not use counter-current washing systems; instead they use clean water at every stage of the wash cycle. Similarly the reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up or reuse of soaper wastewater, is absent in most mills.
Comparatively very poor: Indian industry vs Global best
Sector Average water consumption in Indian industry Globally best
Thermal power plant On an average 80 m3/ mwh(1)
Less than 10 m3/mwh(2)
Textiles 200-250 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(3) Less than 100 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(2)
Pulp & Paper Wood based mills: 150 - 200 m3 / tonne(3)
Waste paper based mills: 75 -100 m3/ tonne(3)
Wood based mills: 50 - 75 m3 / tonne(4)
Waste paper based mills: 10-25 m3/tonne(4)
Integrated Iron & steel plant 10-80 m3 per tonne of finished product (average 5 -10 m3 per tonne of finished product. Best
is around 25 m3)(practice - less than 0.1 m3 wastewater per
tonne finished product(5)
Distilleries 75-200 m3/ tonne alcohol produced(6) Data not available
Fertiliser industry Nitrogenous fertiliser plant - 5.0 - 20.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Straight phosphatic plant - 1.4 - 2.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Complex fertiliser - 0.2 - 5.4 m3/ tonne(3)
An effluent discharge of less than
1.5 m3/ tonne product as P2O5(2)
Source: 1. No credible data available. Estimates done by CSE from wastewater discharge data from "Water Quality in India, Status and trends (1990-2001), CPCB, MoEF" and annual electricity generation data from "Annual Report (2001-2002) on the working of state electricity boards and electricity department, Planning Commission." 2. Pollution prevention and abatement handbook, World Bank. 3. Environmental management in selected industrial sectors - status and need, CPCB & MoEF, February, 2003. 4. Green Rating of Pulp and Paper Sector, CSE. 5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), Best available techniques reference document on the production of iron. 6. Environmental performance of Alcohol industry in UP, UPPCB, 2000-2001.
Iron & Steel: The Iron & Steel sector is also water intensive industry. In India, approximately 80-85 per cent freshwater consumed in this sector is discharged as effluent. In contrast, in USA over 95 per cent of the water used for steel production and processing is recycled. Consequently, while the Indian steel companies consume about 10-80 cubic meters water to produce a single tonne of steel, in the US only 5-10 cubic meters of water is needed. Global best practice for wastewater discharge in integrated iron and steel plant is less than 0.1 cubic meter per tonne steel (See tables: Inefficient water use...; Comparatively very poor). Indian industry will have to reduce its voracious appetite for water. Water, the once inexhaustible natural resource, is going to be one of the most important factors to decide the growth and development of Indian industry in the future.
Water use in industry is a double-edged sword. On one hand it puts immense pressure on local water resources. On the other, wastewater discharged from the industry pollutes the local environment. Water is required, often in large volumes, by industries as process inputs in most industries. In other cases, like food and beverage and chlor-alkali industry, water is used as a raw material: turned into a manufactured product and exported out of the local water system.
However, in most industries it is essentially used as input and mass and heat transfer media. In these industries a very small fraction of water is actually consumed and lost. Most of the water is
actually meant for non-consumptive process uses and is ultimately discharged as effluent.
Quantity and quality
The amount of water available matters but so also does its quality. Industry requires water of good quality for its use, and for this it uses cleaner upstream water. However, the water it discharges is always of lower quality than the feed water and this wastewater is discharged downstream. At best the wastewater discharged represents a quality that can be recycled for lower grade of industrial use and at worst represents water quality which is unsuitable for every use other than navigational puposes. In other words, this water is unfit for usage, is seldom used by the industries and usually used for certain agricultural purposes or by villagers to meet their daily needs.
Of wastes and wants: Water use in India
Industrial Sector Annual
wastewater water
discharge
(million cubic
meters) (%)
Annual
consumption (million cubic meters) Proportion
of water consumed in industry
Thermal power plants 27000.9 35157.4 87.87
Engineering 1551.3 2019.9 5.05
Pulp and paper 695.7 905.8 2.26
Textiles 637.3 829.8 2.07
Steel 396.8 516.6 1.29
Sugar 149.7 194.9 0.49
Fertiliser 56.4 73.5 0.18
Others 241.3 314.2 0.78
Total 30729.2 40012.0 100.0
Note: For methodology see www.downtoearth.org.in
Source: Estimated by CSE based on the wastewater discharged data published by CPCB in "Water quality in India (Status and trends) 1990 - 2001".
Major consumers
Water consumption depends on the type of industry. Whereas thermal power, textiles, pulp and paper and iron and steel are highly water intensive sectors, industrial sectors like chlor-alkali, cement, copper and zinc and plastics require little water.
Data on actual water consumption in India is absent. However, the data on wastewater discharge by various industrial sectors in the country is available. The data on wastewater discharge has been complied by CPCB. According to CPCB, the total wastewater discharged by all major industrial sources is 83,048 million litres per day (mld). This includes 66,700 mld of cooling water discharged by thermal power plants (TPPs). Out of the remaining 16,348 mld of wastewater, TPPs generates another 7,275 mld as boiler blowdown water and overflow from ash pond.
Is it possible...
In the absence of data on actual water consumption is it possible to chalk out a water consumption pattern for Indian industry? The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has attempted to arrive at an estimate based on the wastewater data of CPCB.
According to CPCB the annual water consumption in Indian industry is 40 billion cubic meters and the annual wastewater discharge is about 30.7 billion cubic meter. Therefore, the overall ratio of wastewater discharged to freshwater consumption in Indian industry works out to be about 0.77. That is, for every cubic meter of water consumed by
Indian industry, 0.77 cubic meters of wastewater is discharged. Considering this, CSE has estimated the possible water consumption in various industrial sectors in India (See table: Of wastes...).
Guzzlers
Inefficent water use by industry
The ratio of water consumption and economic value creation in Indian industry is poor. For every cubic metre of water that Indian industry uses, it generates merely US $7.5
economic productivity
Country Industrial water use (billion cubic metres) Industrial productivity (million US $) Industrial water productivity (US $ / cubic metre)
Argentina 2.6 77171.0 30.0
Brazil 9.9 231442.0 23.4
India 15.0 113041.0 7.5
Korea, Rep. 2.6 249268.0 95.6
Norway 1.4 47599.0 35.0
Sweden 0.8 74703.0 92.2
Thailand 1.3 64800.0 48.9
United Kingdom 0.7 330097.0 443.7
Source: World Bank, 2001
Thermal Power Plants (TPPs): Most TPPs in India are owned by the government. Indian TPPs are one of the highest consumers of water as compared to their global counterparts. On an average, for every 1000 Kwh power, Indian TPPs consume as much as 80 cubic meters of water. The water consumption in the modern TPPs in developed countries is less than 10 cubic meters for every 1000 Kwh. The major reason for this atrocious figure is the widespread prevalence of 'once-through cooling systems'.
Pulp and paper: Water consumption in Indian pulp and paper industry is significantly higher than in developed countries:
l Complete discharge of paper machine wastewater, which can be recycled easily.
l Use of chlorine-based bleaching technology in wood and non-wood based mills. Due to the presence of chlorine compounds in the bleach wastewater, it cannot be used as 'black liquor' for energy generation and hence is discharged.
Textiles: The textile industry in India guzzles double the accepted amount for consumption.Why is this so? A major factor is obsolete technology which permits minimum recycling and reuse of process water. For instance, most textile mills in India do not use counter-current washing systems; instead they use clean water at every stage of the wash cycle. Similarly the reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up or reuse of soaper wastewater, is absent in most mills.
Comparatively very poor: Indian industry vs Global best
Sector Average water consumption in Indian industry Globally best
Thermal power plant On an average 80 m3/ mwh(1)
Less than 10 m3/mwh(2)
Textiles 200-250 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(3) Less than 100 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(2)
Pulp & Paper Wood based mills: 150 - 200 m3 / tonne(3)
Waste paper based mills: 75 -100 m3/ tonne(3)
Wood based mills: 50 - 75 m3 / tonne(4)
Waste paper based mills: 10-25 m3/tonne(4)
Integrated Iron & steel plant 10-80 m3 per tonne of finished product (average 5 -10 m3 per tonne of finished product. Best
is around 25 m3)(practice - less than 0.1 m3 wastewater per
tonne finished product(5)
Distilleries 75-200 m3/ tonne alcohol produced(6) Data not available
Fertiliser industry Nitrogenous fertiliser plant - 5.0 - 20.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Straight phosphatic plant - 1.4 - 2.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Complex fertiliser - 0.2 - 5.4 m3/ tonne(3)
An effluent discharge of less than
1.5 m3/ tonne product as P2O5(2)
Source: 1. No credible data available. Estimates done by CSE from wastewater discharge data from "Water Quality in India, Status and trends (1990-2001), CPCB, MoEF" and annual electricity generation data from "Annual Report (2001-2002) on the working of state electricity boards and electricity department, Planning Commission." 2. Pollution prevention and abatement handbook, World Bank. 3. Environmental management in selected industrial sectors - status and need, CPCB & MoEF, February, 2003. 4. Green Rating of Pulp and Paper Sector, CSE. 5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), Best available techniques reference document on the production of iron. 6. Environmental performance of Alcohol industry in UP, UPPCB, 2000-2001.
Iron & Steel: The Iron & Steel sector is also water intensive industry. In India, approximately 80-85 per cent freshwater consumed in this sector is discharged as effluent. In contrast, in USA over 95 per cent of the water used for steel production and processing is recycled. Consequently, while the Indian steel companies consume about 10-80 cubic meters water to produce a single tonne of steel, in the US only 5-10 cubic meters of water is needed. Global best practice for wastewater discharge in integrated iron and steel plant is less than 0.1 cubic meter per tonne steel (See tables: Inefficient water use...; Comparatively very poor). Indian industry will have to reduce its voracious appetite for water. Water, the once inexhaustible natural resource, is going to be one of the most important factors to decide the growth and development of Indian industry in the future.
To use or to misuse
That is the question industries need to think over
Water use in industry is a double-edged sword. On one hand it puts immense pressure on local water resources. On the other, wastewater discharged from the industry pollutes the local environment. Water is required, often in large volumes, by industries as process inputs in most industries. In other cases, like food and beverage and chlor-alkali industry, water is used as a raw material: turned into a manufactured product and exported out of the local water system.
However, in most industries it is essentially used as input and mass and heat transfer media. In these industries a very small fraction of water is actually consumed and lost. Most of the water is
actually meant for non-consumptive process uses and is ultimately discharged as effluent.
Quantity and quality
The amount of water available matters but so also does its quality. Industry requires water of good quality for its use, and for this it uses cleaner upstream water. However, the water it discharges is always of lower quality than the feed water and this wastewater is discharged downstream. At best the wastewater discharged represents a quality that can be recycled for lower grade of industrial use and at worst represents water quality which is unsuitable for every use other than navigational puposes. In other words, this water is unfit for usage, is seldom used by the industries and usually used for certain agricultural purposes or by villagers to meet their daily needs.
Of wastes and wants: Water use in India
Industrial Sector Annual
wastewater water
discharge
(million cubic
meters) (%)
Annual
consumption (million cubic meters) Proportion
of water consumed in industry
Thermal power plants 27000.9 35157.4 87.87
Engineering 1551.3 2019.9 5.05
Pulp and paper 695.7 905.8 2.26
Textiles 637.3 829.8 2.07
Steel 396.8 516.6 1.29
Sugar 149.7 194.9 0.49
Fertiliser 56.4 73.5 0.18
Others 241.3 314.2 0.78
Total 30729.2 40012.0 100.0
Note: For methodology see www.downtoearth.org.in
Source: Estimated by CSE based on the wastewater discharged data published by CPCB in "Water quality in India (Status and trends) 1990 - 2001".
Major consumers
Water consumption depends on the type of industry. Whereas thermal power, textiles, pulp and paper and iron and steel are highly water intensive sectors, industrial sectors like chlor-alkali, cement, copper and zinc and plastics require little water.
Data on actual water consumption in India is absent. However, the data on wastewater discharge by various industrial sectors in the country is available. The data on wastewater discharge has been complied by CPCB. According to CPCB, the total wastewater discharged by all major industrial sources is 83,048 million litres per day (mld). This includes 66,700 mld of cooling water discharged by thermal power plants (TPPs). Out of the remaining 16,348 mld of wastewater, TPPs generates another 7,275 mld as boiler blowdown water and overflow from ash pond.
Is it possible...
In the absence of data on actual water consumption is it possible to chalk out a water consumption pattern for Indian industry? The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has attempted to arrive at an estimate based on the wastewater data of CPCB.
According to CPCB the annual water consumption in Indian industry is 40 billion cubic meters and the annual wastewater discharge is about 30.7 billion cubic meter. Therefore, the overall ratio of wastewater discharged to freshwater consumption in Indian industry works out to be about 0.77. That is, for every cubic meter of water consumed by
Indian industry, 0.77 cubic meters of wastewater is discharged. Considering this, CSE has estimated the possible water consumption in various industrial sectors in India (See table: Of wastes...).
Guzzlers
Inefficent water use by industry
The ratio of water consumption and economic value creation in Indian industry is poor. For every cubic metre of water that Indian industry uses, it generates merely US $7.5
economic productivity
Country Industrial water use (billion cubic metres) Industrial productivity (million US $) Industrial water productivity (US $ / cubic metre)
Argentina 2.6 77171.0 30.0
Brazil 9.9 231442.0 23.4
India 15.0 113041.0 7.5
Korea, Rep. 2.6 249268.0 95.6
Norway 1.4 47599.0 35.0
Sweden 0.8 74703.0 92.2
Thailand 1.3 64800.0 48.9
United Kingdom 0.7 330097.0 443.7
Source: World Bank, 2001
Thermal Power Plants (TPPs): Most TPPs in India are owned by the government. Indian TPPs are one of the highest consumers of water as compared to their global counterparts. On an average, for every 1000 Kwh power, Indian TPPs consume as much as 80 cubic meters of water. The water consumption in the modern TPPs in developed countries is less than 10 cubic meters for every 1000 Kwh. The major reason for this atrocious figure is the widespread prevalence of 'once-through cooling systems'.
Pulp and paper: Water consumption in Indian pulp and paper industry is significantly higher than in developed countries:
l Complete discharge of paper machine wastewater, which can be recycled easily.
l Use of chlorine-based bleaching technology in wood and non-wood based mills. Due to the presence of chlorine compounds in the bleach wastewater, it cannot be used as 'black liquor' for energy generation and hence is discharged.
Textiles: The textile industry in India guzzles double the accepted amount for consumption.Why is this so? A major factor is obsolete technology which permits minimum recycling and reuse of process water. For instance, most textile mills in India do not use counter-current washing systems; instead they use clean water at every stage of the wash cycle. Similarly the reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up or reuse of soaper wastewater, is absent in most mills.
Comparatively very poor: Indian industry vs Global best
Sector Average water consumption in Indian industry Globally best
Thermal power plant On an average 80 m3/ mwh(1)
Less than 10 m3/mwh(2)
Textiles 200-250 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(3) Less than 100 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(2)
Pulp & Paper Wood based mills: 150 - 200 m3 / tonne(3)
Waste paper based mills: 75 -100 m3/ tonne(3)
Wood based mills: 50 - 75 m3 / tonne(4)
Waste paper based mills: 10-25 m3/tonne(4)
Integrated Iron & steel plant 10-80 m3 per tonne of finished product (average 5 -10 m3 per tonne of finished product. Best
is around 25 m3)(practice - less than 0.1 m3 wastewater per
tonne finished product(5)
Distilleries 75-200 m3/ tonne alcohol produced(6) Data not available
Fertiliser industry Nitrogenous fertiliser plant - 5.0 - 20.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Straight phosphatic plant - 1.4 - 2.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Complex fertiliser - 0.2 - 5.4 m3/ tonne(3)
An effluent discharge of less than
1.5 m3/ tonne product as P2O5(2)
Source: 1. No credible data available. Estimates done by CSE from wastewater discharge data from "Water Quality in India, Status and trends (1990-2001), CPCB, MoEF" and annual electricity generation data from "Annual Report (2001-2002) on the working of state electricity boards and electricity department, Planning Commission." 2. Pollution prevention and abatement handbook, World Bank. 3. Environmental management in selected industrial sectors - status and need, CPCB & MoEF, February, 2003. 4. Green Rating of Pulp and Paper Sector, CSE. 5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), Best available techniques reference document on the production of iron. 6. Environmental performance of Alcohol industry in UP, UPPCB, 2000-2001.
Iron & Steel: The Iron & Steel sector is also water intensive industry. In India, approximately 80-85 per cent freshwater consumed in this sector is discharged as effluent. In contrast, in USA over 95 per cent of the water used for steel production and processing is recycled. Consequently, while the Indian steel companies consume about 10-80 cubic meters water to produce a single tonne of steel, in the US only 5-10 cubic meters of water is needed. Global best practice for wastewater discharge in integrated iron and steel plant is less than 0.1 cubic meter per tonne steel (See tables: Inefficient water use...; Comparatively very poor). Indian industry will have to reduce its voracious appetite for water. Water, the once inexhaustible natural resource, is going to be one of the most important factors to decide the growth and development of Indian industry in the future.
Water use in industry is a double-edged sword. On one hand it puts immense pressure on local water resources. On the other, wastewater discharged from the industry pollutes the local environment. Water is required, often in large volumes, by industries as process inputs in most industries. In other cases, like food and beverage and chlor-alkali industry, water is used as a raw material: turned into a manufactured product and exported out of the local water system.
However, in most industries it is essentially used as input and mass and heat transfer media. In these industries a very small fraction of water is actually consumed and lost. Most of the water is
actually meant for non-consumptive process uses and is ultimately discharged as effluent.
Quantity and quality
The amount of water available matters but so also does its quality. Industry requires water of good quality for its use, and for this it uses cleaner upstream water. However, the water it discharges is always of lower quality than the feed water and this wastewater is discharged downstream. At best the wastewater discharged represents a quality that can be recycled for lower grade of industrial use and at worst represents water quality which is unsuitable for every use other than navigational puposes. In other words, this water is unfit for usage, is seldom used by the industries and usually used for certain agricultural purposes or by villagers to meet their daily needs.
Of wastes and wants: Water use in India
Industrial Sector Annual
wastewater water
discharge
(million cubic
meters) (%)
Annual
consumption (million cubic meters) Proportion
of water consumed in industry
Thermal power plants 27000.9 35157.4 87.87
Engineering 1551.3 2019.9 5.05
Pulp and paper 695.7 905.8 2.26
Textiles 637.3 829.8 2.07
Steel 396.8 516.6 1.29
Sugar 149.7 194.9 0.49
Fertiliser 56.4 73.5 0.18
Others 241.3 314.2 0.78
Total 30729.2 40012.0 100.0
Note: For methodology see www.downtoearth.org.in
Source: Estimated by CSE based on the wastewater discharged data published by CPCB in "Water quality in India (Status and trends) 1990 - 2001".
Major consumers
Water consumption depends on the type of industry. Whereas thermal power, textiles, pulp and paper and iron and steel are highly water intensive sectors, industrial sectors like chlor-alkali, cement, copper and zinc and plastics require little water.
Data on actual water consumption in India is absent. However, the data on wastewater discharge by various industrial sectors in the country is available. The data on wastewater discharge has been complied by CPCB. According to CPCB, the total wastewater discharged by all major industrial sources is 83,048 million litres per day (mld). This includes 66,700 mld of cooling water discharged by thermal power plants (TPPs). Out of the remaining 16,348 mld of wastewater, TPPs generates another 7,275 mld as boiler blowdown water and overflow from ash pond.
Is it possible...
In the absence of data on actual water consumption is it possible to chalk out a water consumption pattern for Indian industry? The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) has attempted to arrive at an estimate based on the wastewater data of CPCB.
According to CPCB the annual water consumption in Indian industry is 40 billion cubic meters and the annual wastewater discharge is about 30.7 billion cubic meter. Therefore, the overall ratio of wastewater discharged to freshwater consumption in Indian industry works out to be about 0.77. That is, for every cubic meter of water consumed by
Indian industry, 0.77 cubic meters of wastewater is discharged. Considering this, CSE has estimated the possible water consumption in various industrial sectors in India (See table: Of wastes...).
Guzzlers
Inefficent water use by industry
The ratio of water consumption and economic value creation in Indian industry is poor. For every cubic metre of water that Indian industry uses, it generates merely US $7.5
economic productivity
Country Industrial water use (billion cubic metres) Industrial productivity (million US $) Industrial water productivity (US $ / cubic metre)
Argentina 2.6 77171.0 30.0
Brazil 9.9 231442.0 23.4
India 15.0 113041.0 7.5
Korea, Rep. 2.6 249268.0 95.6
Norway 1.4 47599.0 35.0
Sweden 0.8 74703.0 92.2
Thailand 1.3 64800.0 48.9
United Kingdom 0.7 330097.0 443.7
Source: World Bank, 2001
Thermal Power Plants (TPPs): Most TPPs in India are owned by the government. Indian TPPs are one of the highest consumers of water as compared to their global counterparts. On an average, for every 1000 Kwh power, Indian TPPs consume as much as 80 cubic meters of water. The water consumption in the modern TPPs in developed countries is less than 10 cubic meters for every 1000 Kwh. The major reason for this atrocious figure is the widespread prevalence of 'once-through cooling systems'.
Pulp and paper: Water consumption in Indian pulp and paper industry is significantly higher than in developed countries:
l Complete discharge of paper machine wastewater, which can be recycled easily.
l Use of chlorine-based bleaching technology in wood and non-wood based mills. Due to the presence of chlorine compounds in the bleach wastewater, it cannot be used as 'black liquor' for energy generation and hence is discharged.
Textiles: The textile industry in India guzzles double the accepted amount for consumption.Why is this so? A major factor is obsolete technology which permits minimum recycling and reuse of process water. For instance, most textile mills in India do not use counter-current washing systems; instead they use clean water at every stage of the wash cycle. Similarly the reuse of final rinse water from dyeing for dye bath make-up or reuse of soaper wastewater, is absent in most mills.
Comparatively very poor: Indian industry vs Global best
Sector Average water consumption in Indian industry Globally best
Thermal power plant On an average 80 m3/ mwh(1)
Less than 10 m3/mwh(2)
Textiles 200-250 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(3) Less than 100 m3/ tonne cotton cloth(2)
Pulp & Paper Wood based mills: 150 - 200 m3 / tonne(3)
Waste paper based mills: 75 -100 m3/ tonne(3)
Wood based mills: 50 - 75 m3 / tonne(4)
Waste paper based mills: 10-25 m3/tonne(4)
Integrated Iron & steel plant 10-80 m3 per tonne of finished product (average 5 -10 m3 per tonne of finished product. Best
is around 25 m3)(practice - less than 0.1 m3 wastewater per
tonne finished product(5)
Distilleries 75-200 m3/ tonne alcohol produced(6) Data not available
Fertiliser industry Nitrogenous fertiliser plant - 5.0 - 20.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Straight phosphatic plant - 1.4 - 2.0 m3/ tonne(3)
Complex fertiliser - 0.2 - 5.4 m3/ tonne(3)
An effluent discharge of less than
1.5 m3/ tonne product as P2O5(2)
Source: 1. No credible data available. Estimates done by CSE from wastewater discharge data from "Water Quality in India, Status and trends (1990-2001), CPCB, MoEF" and annual electricity generation data from "Annual Report (2001-2002) on the working of state electricity boards and electricity department, Planning Commission." 2. Pollution prevention and abatement handbook, World Bank. 3. Environmental management in selected industrial sectors - status and need, CPCB & MoEF, February, 2003. 4. Green Rating of Pulp and Paper Sector, CSE. 5. Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC), Best available techniques reference document on the production of iron. 6. Environmental performance of Alcohol industry in UP, UPPCB, 2000-2001.
Iron & Steel: The Iron & Steel sector is also water intensive industry. In India, approximately 80-85 per cent freshwater consumed in this sector is discharged as effluent. In contrast, in USA over 95 per cent of the water used for steel production and processing is recycled. Consequently, while the Indian steel companies consume about 10-80 cubic meters water to produce a single tonne of steel, in the US only 5-10 cubic meters of water is needed. Global best practice for wastewater discharge in integrated iron and steel plant is less than 0.1 cubic meter per tonne steel (See tables: Inefficient water use...; Comparatively very poor). Indian industry will have to reduce its voracious appetite for water. Water, the once inexhaustible natural resource, is going to be one of the most important factors to decide the growth and development of Indian industry in the future.
As it is, everyone is fighting
Agriculture receives the greater share of the annual water allocation in India. According to the Union ministry of water resources (MoWR), 80 per cent of India’s utilisable water is devoted to this sector, mostly in the form of irrigation. Demand from the domestic sector has remained low and accounts for only 5 per cent of the annual freshwater withdrawals in India. The industrial sector is the second highest user of water after agriculture. But we do not know how much water industries in India consume. (See table: Industrial water use...)
How much water does Indian industry consume?
The estimations of national and international agencies on industrial water use in the country vary significantly.
According to MoWR, industrial water use in India stands at about 40 billion cubic meters or nearly 6 per cent of total freshwater abstraction.
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in 2000, India’s annual fresh water withdrawals were about 500 billion cubic meter and the Indian industry consumed about 10 billion cubic meter of water as process water and 30 billion cubic meter as cooling water. Therefore, according to CPCB data, the water consumption in Indian industry accounts for about 8 per cent of the total fresh water use in the country.
Category 1990 2010 2025 2050
Irrigation 460 (88.6%) 536 (77.3%) 688 (73%) 1008 (70.9%)
Industries + Energy 34 (6.6%) 41.4 (6%) 80 (8.5%) 121 (8.5%)143 (10.1%)
Total (including others) 519 693 942 1422
Source: National commission for integrated water resources development plan, Ministry of
water resources, 1999
According to the World Bank, the water demand for industrial uses and energy production will grow at a rate of 4.2 per cent per year, rising from 67 billion cubic meter in 1999 to 228 billion cubic meter by 2025. Therefore, according to the World Bank the current industrial water use in India is about 13 per cent of the total fresh water withdrawal in the country.
Despite differences, the estimates on industrial water use by the three agencies have a point in common. All the three agencies concur that industrial water use is growing at the fastest pace in the country.
How much water does Indian industry consume?
The estimations of national and international agencies on industrial water use in the country vary significantly.
According to MoWR, industrial water use in India stands at about 40 billion cubic meters or nearly 6 per cent of total freshwater abstraction.
According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), in 2000, India’s annual fresh water withdrawals were about 500 billion cubic meter and the Indian industry consumed about 10 billion cubic meter of water as process water and 30 billion cubic meter as cooling water. Therefore, according to CPCB data, the water consumption in Indian industry accounts for about 8 per cent of the total fresh water use in the country.
Category 1990 2010 2025 2050
Irrigation 460 (88.6%) 536 (77.3%) 688 (73%) 1008 (70.9%)
Industries + Energy 34 (6.6%) 41.4 (6%) 80 (8.5%) 121 (8.5%)143 (10.1%)
Total (including others) 519 693 942 1422
Source: National commission for integrated water resources development plan, Ministry of
water resources, 1999
According to the World Bank, the water demand for industrial uses and energy production will grow at a rate of 4.2 per cent per year, rising from 67 billion cubic meter in 1999 to 228 billion cubic meter by 2025. Therefore, according to the World Bank the current industrial water use in India is about 13 per cent of the total fresh water withdrawal in the country.
Despite differences, the estimates on industrial water use by the three agencies have a point in common. All the three agencies concur that industrial water use is growing at the fastest pace in the country.
It isn’t agriculture!!!!!
Water use is increasing and it is industry that is taking it up
Increasing water use is a fact of life in many countries and an inevitability for others. The world’s six billion inhabitants are already appropriating 54 per cent of all accessible freshwater reserves. It is predicted that by 2025 humankind’s share will be 70 per cent. This estimate reflects only the impact of population growth. A worse scenario looms large as the scramble for water intensifies.
Industrial water use is closely linked to the economy of a country. So far as India is concerned, as GDP increases, so will industrial water consumption
Who consumes water most? Households? According to UNDP’s World Water Development Report, 2003 (WWDR, 2003), they account for only eight per cent of global water consumption. The agricultural sector? It is the largest user of water globally and accounts for about 70 per cent of the total freshwater abstraction. However, it is predicted that both these users will be outdone by industry: Water consumption by industries is increasing. In fact, in high income countries, industrial water use already accounts for as much as 59 per cent of the total fresh water consumption; almost twice the amount used in agriculture. (See graph: Water use worldwide). It is likely, then, that this will become a global trend even as more and more nations begin to choose industry over agriculture, as a key to economic growth.
Growing need, growing concern
Presently, industry accounts for 22 per cent of the global freshwater consumption. It is expected that the figure will double over the next two decades. According to forecasts published in WWDR, 2003, the volume of water consumed per year by industry will rise from 752 km3/year in 1995 to an estimated 1,170 km3/year by 2025.
And where is this most likely to happen? Most of this increase in industrial water use in likely to happen in fast growing developing countries like India. There has been a significant migration of manufacturing industries from developed countries to developing ones and this trend is likely to continue. This will contribute to the increasing use of water by industries in developing countries.
Industrial use of water has a direct bearing on the country’s economy. This means that as India increase its GDP, there will be a corresponding increase in water use by Indian industries.
Industries not only consume water but also pollute it. According to the WWDR 2003, in developing countries, 70 per cent of industrial wastes are dumped without treatment, thereby polluting the usable water supply. Therefore, the issue of industrial water use revolves around two crucial interlinked issues — water use and water pollution.
As it is, water’s scarce
From a per capita annual average of 5,177 cubic metre in 1951, fresh water availability in India dropped to 1,820 cubic metre in 2001. In fact, it is predicted that by 2025, per capita annual average fresh water availability will be 1,340 cubic metre approximately. Already, the potential of most river basins is being exploited beyond 50 per cent and several basins are considered to be water scarce. Over 80 per cent of the domestic water supply in India is dependent on groundwater. However, groundwater is fast depleting. Water tables have fallen significantly in most areas and there is a significant pollution of groundwater from natural as well as manmade sources.
Increasing water use is a fact of life in many countries and an inevitability for others. The world’s six billion inhabitants are already appropriating 54 per cent of all accessible freshwater reserves. It is predicted that by 2025 humankind’s share will be 70 per cent. This estimate reflects only the impact of population growth. A worse scenario looms large as the scramble for water intensifies.
Industrial water use is closely linked to the economy of a country. So far as India is concerned, as GDP increases, so will industrial water consumption
Who consumes water most? Households? According to UNDP’s World Water Development Report, 2003 (WWDR, 2003), they account for only eight per cent of global water consumption. The agricultural sector? It is the largest user of water globally and accounts for about 70 per cent of the total freshwater abstraction. However, it is predicted that both these users will be outdone by industry: Water consumption by industries is increasing. In fact, in high income countries, industrial water use already accounts for as much as 59 per cent of the total fresh water consumption; almost twice the amount used in agriculture. (See graph: Water use worldwide). It is likely, then, that this will become a global trend even as more and more nations begin to choose industry over agriculture, as a key to economic growth.
Growing need, growing concern
Presently, industry accounts for 22 per cent of the global freshwater consumption. It is expected that the figure will double over the next two decades. According to forecasts published in WWDR, 2003, the volume of water consumed per year by industry will rise from 752 km3/year in 1995 to an estimated 1,170 km3/year by 2025.
And where is this most likely to happen? Most of this increase in industrial water use in likely to happen in fast growing developing countries like India. There has been a significant migration of manufacturing industries from developed countries to developing ones and this trend is likely to continue. This will contribute to the increasing use of water by industries in developing countries.
Industrial use of water has a direct bearing on the country’s economy. This means that as India increase its GDP, there will be a corresponding increase in water use by Indian industries.
Industries not only consume water but also pollute it. According to the WWDR 2003, in developing countries, 70 per cent of industrial wastes are dumped without treatment, thereby polluting the usable water supply. Therefore, the issue of industrial water use revolves around two crucial interlinked issues — water use and water pollution.
As it is, water’s scarce
From a per capita annual average of 5,177 cubic metre in 1951, fresh water availability in India dropped to 1,820 cubic metre in 2001. In fact, it is predicted that by 2025, per capita annual average fresh water availability will be 1,340 cubic metre approximately. Already, the potential of most river basins is being exploited beyond 50 per cent and several basins are considered to be water scarce. Over 80 per cent of the domestic water supply in India is dependent on groundwater. However, groundwater is fast depleting. Water tables have fallen significantly in most areas and there is a significant pollution of groundwater from natural as well as manmade sources.
MASS AWARENESS PROGRAMMES
WATER RESOURCES AVAILABILITY
o Water is the most widely distributed substance on our planet albeit in different amounts.
o It sustains the environment and human life.
o Out of the total water resources available in the world, 97.5% is saline water and only 2.5% is fresh water, which is important for the existence of human life.
o Greater portion of this fresh water (68.7%) is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctica, Arctic and mountainous regions, 29.9% exists as fresh ground water and only 0.26% of the total amount of fresh water is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs and river systems.
GROUND WATER USE
o Ground water is one of the most precious natural resources.
o It has played a significant role in upgrading and maintaining India's economy and standard of living.
o Besides being the primary source of water supply for domestic and many industrial uses, it is the single largest sustainable source of irrigation water.
o About 90% of water supplies for domestic use in rural areas, 50% of water for use in urban and industrial areas and 50% irrigation water requirements are being met from ground water.
o Tamil Nadu contribution of ground water for irrigation is 45%.
GROUND WATER - THE TAMIL NADU SCENARIO
o Rainfall is the chief source for recharge of ground water. The rainwater which falls on the earth percolates downwards through weathered mantle or fissured rocks and accumulates as ground water.
o In Tamil Nadu, hard rock formations occupy 73% of the total geographical area and the remaining area is occupied by sedimentary rocks. Ground water is extracted from these rocks by means of dug/tube/bore wells.
o With rapid growth in population in the State, demand for water for various uses has increased manifold, which has increased the stress on ground water resources.
o (In a number of areas in the State) Situations of over-check of ground water exist and the extraction exceeds annual recharge.
o The over-extraction of ground water leads to declining ground water levels thereby rendering existing wells out of use and necessitating deepening of existing wells which leads to increased pumping costs and lifts.
o In parts of Coimbatore, Salem and Namakkal districts, ground water levels have gone down to 40 metres below ground level due to over-extraction. In coastal areas of Minjur, north of Chennai, over-extraction has caused landward movement of seawater -fresh water interface.
o In urban areas, due to rapid growth of urbanisation and consequent shrinkage in open land, natural recharge to ground water has reduced considerably.
o Haphazard disposal of untreated industrial wastes leads to seepage of these wastes underground resulting in ground water pollution.
o Discharge from Vaniyambadi industrial area into Palar river, which has no perennial surface flow, has caused ground water pollution over a long stretch of the river.
o Instances of ground water pollution have also been reported from Ambattur, Madhavaram and Manali in and around Chennai as well as Cuddalore and Pondicherry regions.
o In Kankeyam, Tharapuram and Vellakoil of Erode district, Tiruppur in Coimbatore district and Karur in Karur district, effluents from dyeing industries have resulted in the deterioration of ground water quality.
NEED FOR CONSERVATION AND AUGMENTATION OF GROUND WATER AND ITS PROTECTION FROM POLLUTION
o Planning of ground water development in hard rock areas, as in Tamil Nadu, has it's own multiple ramifications. Hence, judicious use of ground water is called for in the state.
o In view of the increasing demand for water and the dwindling availability of fresh ground water resources, it has become imperative to take urgent measures to conserve every drop of water that goes waste.
o To arrest or even reverse the declining trends of ground water levels, it is essential to take necessary measures to augment ground water storage by adopting suitable artificial recharge methods.
o The surplus runoff generated during monsoons, which flows into the rivers and ultimately to the sea, needs to be harvested and recharged underground to augment ground water storage.
o In coastal areas, where problem of seawater ingress has occurred, ground water recharge measures need to be implemented to push back the seawater-fresh water interface.
Consumption of Polluted water leads to the following health hazards.
Chemical Quality Disease Caused
Nitrate more than 45 mg/litre Depression
Fluoride more than 1.4 mg/litre Fluorosis
Sulphate more than 200 mg/litre Diarrhoea
Arsenic-lead and Chromium-more than 0.05 mg/litre Skin diseases
Iron more than 1 mg/litre Diarrhoea
o Use of polluted water for irrigation may affect the growth of crops in many cases.
o Over-application of some fertilisers and insecticides/pesticides may lead to ground water pollution.
o Process of ground water pollution is irreversible in most cases.
Therefore, it is very essential to protect ground water from pollution.
ECONOMISING WATER USE FOR IRRIGATION
In view of the reduced availability of fresh water resources it is essential that efforts are made by every individual to economise ground water use. Some of the ways for economising water use for irrigation are listed below.
o Preventing seepage losses.
o Adopting modern irrigation practices like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
o Use of proper frequency, timing and depth of irrigation. Soil moisture conservation by mulching.
o Use of water-efficient cultural practices.
o Community participation to improve efficiency in water use.
CENTRAL GROUND WATER AUTHORITY
o The Central Ground Water Authority has been constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for the purpose of development and management of ground water, to regulate indiscriminate boring and to protect and preserve it in the country.
o The Authority was constituted on 14th January, 1997.
o The mandate of the Authority is to identify critical areas facing problem of ground water depletion, pollution, sea water ingress etc., notify them and take all necessary measures including regulation of ground water withdrawal and promoting, conservation, augmentation and protection of ground water resources to improve the ground water situation in those areas.
o The Authority conducts Mass Awareness Programmes to educate the users about the existing and anticipated development and management problems in ground water and ways and means to tackle/avoid those problems.
o With a view to regulate ground water withdrawals and evaluate the present draft in Delhi, Faridabad and Ballabhagarh in Haryana, Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh, Ludihana in Pubjab and Union Territory of Diu, the Authority has taken up registration of existing ground water abstraction structures.
1. WHAT IS ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING?
In rooftop rainwater harvesting, the rainwater is collected from the roofs of buildings and stored in ground water reservoirs for beneficial use in future.
2. WHY IT IS REQUIRED?
o To meet the ever-increasing demand for water in urban areas.
o To reduce the runoff, which is choking the storm drains.
o To avoid the flooding of roads.
o To augment the ground water storage and control the decline of water levels.
o To reduce the ground water pollution.
o To improve the quality of ground water.
o To reduce the soil erosion.
3. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES?
o This is an ideal solution for water problems where there is inadequate ground water supply or surface resources are either lacking or insignificant.
o To utilise the rainfall runoff, which is going into sewers or storm drains.
o Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft in nature.
o It will help reducing flood hazard.
o To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
o To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so that the water is suitable for re-use.
o Rainwater may be harnessed at places of need and may be utilised at times of need.
o The structures required for harvesting the rainwater are simple, economical and eco-friendly.
4. HOW TO DO IT?
Abandoned dug well
Abandoned/running hand pump
Recharge pit
Recharge trench
Gravity head recharge well
Recharge shaft
o Water is the most widely distributed substance on our planet albeit in different amounts.
o It sustains the environment and human life.
o Out of the total water resources available in the world, 97.5% is saline water and only 2.5% is fresh water, which is important for the existence of human life.
o Greater portion of this fresh water (68.7%) is in the form of ice and permanent snow cover in the Antarctica, Arctic and mountainous regions, 29.9% exists as fresh ground water and only 0.26% of the total amount of fresh water is concentrated in lakes, reservoirs and river systems.
GROUND WATER USE
o Ground water is one of the most precious natural resources.
o It has played a significant role in upgrading and maintaining India's economy and standard of living.
o Besides being the primary source of water supply for domestic and many industrial uses, it is the single largest sustainable source of irrigation water.
o About 90% of water supplies for domestic use in rural areas, 50% of water for use in urban and industrial areas and 50% irrigation water requirements are being met from ground water.
o Tamil Nadu contribution of ground water for irrigation is 45%.
GROUND WATER - THE TAMIL NADU SCENARIO
o Rainfall is the chief source for recharge of ground water. The rainwater which falls on the earth percolates downwards through weathered mantle or fissured rocks and accumulates as ground water.
o In Tamil Nadu, hard rock formations occupy 73% of the total geographical area and the remaining area is occupied by sedimentary rocks. Ground water is extracted from these rocks by means of dug/tube/bore wells.
o With rapid growth in population in the State, demand for water for various uses has increased manifold, which has increased the stress on ground water resources.
o (In a number of areas in the State) Situations of over-check of ground water exist and the extraction exceeds annual recharge.
o The over-extraction of ground water leads to declining ground water levels thereby rendering existing wells out of use and necessitating deepening of existing wells which leads to increased pumping costs and lifts.
o In parts of Coimbatore, Salem and Namakkal districts, ground water levels have gone down to 40 metres below ground level due to over-extraction. In coastal areas of Minjur, north of Chennai, over-extraction has caused landward movement of seawater -fresh water interface.
o In urban areas, due to rapid growth of urbanisation and consequent shrinkage in open land, natural recharge to ground water has reduced considerably.
o Haphazard disposal of untreated industrial wastes leads to seepage of these wastes underground resulting in ground water pollution.
o Discharge from Vaniyambadi industrial area into Palar river, which has no perennial surface flow, has caused ground water pollution over a long stretch of the river.
o Instances of ground water pollution have also been reported from Ambattur, Madhavaram and Manali in and around Chennai as well as Cuddalore and Pondicherry regions.
o In Kankeyam, Tharapuram and Vellakoil of Erode district, Tiruppur in Coimbatore district and Karur in Karur district, effluents from dyeing industries have resulted in the deterioration of ground water quality.
NEED FOR CONSERVATION AND AUGMENTATION OF GROUND WATER AND ITS PROTECTION FROM POLLUTION
o Planning of ground water development in hard rock areas, as in Tamil Nadu, has it's own multiple ramifications. Hence, judicious use of ground water is called for in the state.
o In view of the increasing demand for water and the dwindling availability of fresh ground water resources, it has become imperative to take urgent measures to conserve every drop of water that goes waste.
o To arrest or even reverse the declining trends of ground water levels, it is essential to take necessary measures to augment ground water storage by adopting suitable artificial recharge methods.
o The surplus runoff generated during monsoons, which flows into the rivers and ultimately to the sea, needs to be harvested and recharged underground to augment ground water storage.
o In coastal areas, where problem of seawater ingress has occurred, ground water recharge measures need to be implemented to push back the seawater-fresh water interface.
Consumption of Polluted water leads to the following health hazards.
Chemical Quality Disease Caused
Nitrate more than 45 mg/litre Depression
Fluoride more than 1.4 mg/litre Fluorosis
Sulphate more than 200 mg/litre Diarrhoea
Arsenic-lead and Chromium-more than 0.05 mg/litre Skin diseases
Iron more than 1 mg/litre Diarrhoea
o Use of polluted water for irrigation may affect the growth of crops in many cases.
o Over-application of some fertilisers and insecticides/pesticides may lead to ground water pollution.
o Process of ground water pollution is irreversible in most cases.
Therefore, it is very essential to protect ground water from pollution.
ECONOMISING WATER USE FOR IRRIGATION
In view of the reduced availability of fresh water resources it is essential that efforts are made by every individual to economise ground water use. Some of the ways for economising water use for irrigation are listed below.
o Preventing seepage losses.
o Adopting modern irrigation practices like drip and sprinkler irrigation.
o Use of proper frequency, timing and depth of irrigation. Soil moisture conservation by mulching.
o Use of water-efficient cultural practices.
o Community participation to improve efficiency in water use.
CENTRAL GROUND WATER AUTHORITY
o The Central Ground Water Authority has been constituted under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for the purpose of development and management of ground water, to regulate indiscriminate boring and to protect and preserve it in the country.
o The Authority was constituted on 14th January, 1997.
o The mandate of the Authority is to identify critical areas facing problem of ground water depletion, pollution, sea water ingress etc., notify them and take all necessary measures including regulation of ground water withdrawal and promoting, conservation, augmentation and protection of ground water resources to improve the ground water situation in those areas.
o The Authority conducts Mass Awareness Programmes to educate the users about the existing and anticipated development and management problems in ground water and ways and means to tackle/avoid those problems.
o With a view to regulate ground water withdrawals and evaluate the present draft in Delhi, Faridabad and Ballabhagarh in Haryana, Ghaziabad in Uttar Pradesh, Ludihana in Pubjab and Union Territory of Diu, the Authority has taken up registration of existing ground water abstraction structures.
1. WHAT IS ROOFTOP RAINWATER HARVESTING?
In rooftop rainwater harvesting, the rainwater is collected from the roofs of buildings and stored in ground water reservoirs for beneficial use in future.
2. WHY IT IS REQUIRED?
o To meet the ever-increasing demand for water in urban areas.
o To reduce the runoff, which is choking the storm drains.
o To avoid the flooding of roads.
o To augment the ground water storage and control the decline of water levels.
o To reduce the ground water pollution.
o To improve the quality of ground water.
o To reduce the soil erosion.
3. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES?
o This is an ideal solution for water problems where there is inadequate ground water supply or surface resources are either lacking or insignificant.
o To utilise the rainfall runoff, which is going into sewers or storm drains.
o Rainwater is bacteriologically pure, free from organic matter and soft in nature.
o It will help reducing flood hazard.
o To improve the quality of existing ground water through dilution.
o To remove bacteriological and other impurities from sewage and waste water so that the water is suitable for re-use.
o Rainwater may be harnessed at places of need and may be utilised at times of need.
o The structures required for harvesting the rainwater are simple, economical and eco-friendly.
4. HOW TO DO IT?
Abandoned dug well
Abandoned/running hand pump
Recharge pit
Recharge trench
Gravity head recharge well
Recharge shaft
Saturday, October 13, 2007
Word Scramble Game:
Put the letters in the right order to complete the sentence:
• All living things need _______________ (tawer) to live.
• When water evaporates, it travels into the air and becomes part of a _______________. (dlocu)
• Less than 1% of all the water on the earth is _______________ (sefrh) water.
• We _______________ (ikrdn) water in the liquid form.
• Check for leaks and save hundreds of _______________ (allogns) of water a day.
• You'll save water by taking a quick _______________ (howser).
• Wash bikes and cars with a _______________ (kecbut) and sponge instead of a running hose.
• Ask your _______________ (mfaiyl) to look for ways to save water.
• All living things need _______________ (tawer) to live.
• When water evaporates, it travels into the air and becomes part of a _______________. (dlocu)
• Less than 1% of all the water on the earth is _______________ (sefrh) water.
• We _______________ (ikrdn) water in the liquid form.
• Check for leaks and save hundreds of _______________ (allogns) of water a day.
• You'll save water by taking a quick _______________ (howser).
• Wash bikes and cars with a _______________ (kecbut) and sponge instead of a running hose.
• Ask your _______________ (mfaiyl) to look for ways to save water.
Fun Facts Matching Game
1. Taking a shower A. 30 gallons
2. Watering the lawn B. 180 gallons
3. Washing the dishes C. 4-7 gallons
4. Washing clothes D. 1/2 gallons
5. Flushing the toilet E. 39,090 gallons
6. Brushing teeth F. 62,600 gallons
7. Drinking G. 15-30 gallons
8. Needed to produce one ton of steel H. 9.3 gallons
9. Needed to process one can of fruit or vegetables I. 1 gallon
10. Needed to manufacture a new car and its four tires J. 9-20 gallons
2. Watering the lawn B. 180 gallons
3. Washing the dishes C. 4-7 gallons
4. Washing clothes D. 1/2 gallons
5. Flushing the toilet E. 39,090 gallons
6. Brushing teeth F. 62,600 gallons
7. Drinking G. 15-30 gallons
8. Needed to produce one ton of steel H. 9.3 gallons
9. Needed to process one can of fruit or vegetables I. 1 gallon
10. Needed to manufacture a new car and its four tires J. 9-20 gallons
Tuesday, October 9, 2007
global water concern
Dear sir,
How is UNEP harmonizing its Water policy and strategy with the governments policies on freshwater?
Nancy Wanja (from Kenya)
Dear Nancy,
UNEP's Water Policy and Strategy is in fact built on the foundation set by national governments through various international fora. For example, during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, the governments agreed to set a target for all countries to develop integrated water resource management (IWRM) plans and water efficiency plans. If you review the UNEP Water Policy and Strategy available on our freshwater site, you will see the clear thread of IWRM throughout.
Also, the UNEP Water Policy and Strategy was approved by the national governments during the 24th Session of UNEPs Governing Council in February 2007. In decided to have UNEP adopt the Water Policy and Strategy for a six-year period to guide how UNEP will help countries as well as subregional or regional authorities, they have agreed the approach was the correct one.
Thanks.
How is UNEP harmonizing its Water policy and strategy with the governments policies on freshwater?
Nancy Wanja (from Kenya)
Dear Nancy,
UNEP's Water Policy and Strategy is in fact built on the foundation set by national governments through various international fora. For example, during the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 2002, the governments agreed to set a target for all countries to develop integrated water resource management (IWRM) plans and water efficiency plans. If you review the UNEP Water Policy and Strategy available on our freshwater site, you will see the clear thread of IWRM throughout.
Also, the UNEP Water Policy and Strategy was approved by the national governments during the 24th Session of UNEPs Governing Council in February 2007. In decided to have UNEP adopt the Water Policy and Strategy for a six-year period to guide how UNEP will help countries as well as subregional or regional authorities, they have agreed the approach was the correct one.
Thanks.
global water concern
Tim Kasten is Chief of Natural Resources in UNEP’s Division of Environmental Policy Implementation. Tim joined UNEP in 1998 after 12 years with the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Office of Water in Washington, DC. During these 12 years he held various positions including capacity-building for Native American tribes, water regulations and standards, ocean discharge programme and finished as the US EPA’s Senior Advisor on International Water Programmes.
Dhaval Joshi(from India asked him.............)
dear sir,
wwf recently released their list of ten river which due to some collective reasons like pollution ,climate change etc are going to disappear or get deceased.since these rivers are very important source in their regions , what do u think is the source of freshwater for people depending on them post such phenomenas?
dhaval joshi (from India)
Tim Kasten replies........................
Dear Dhaval Joshi,
The question you have posed is a relevant question for many areas and very relevant to match the theme of this year’s World Water Day – Water Scarcity.
Of course the first goal is to avoid these rivers from drying up. Though they may currently be on an “endangered” list, there is still much that can be done to reduce pollution and adapt to climate change. The very practices that can help avoid their drying up are those that would be used if they were to dry up, as such, it is best to put such practices in place now.
Such practices would include integrated planning to determine the reasons they are drying up and mitigate them now. For example, If such stresses include excess extraction for agriculture, then irrigation practices must be made more efficient, including better use of rainwater where appropriate. Integrated planning must also include other increased efficiency programmes - in other words getting the most out of what you have available - for example in industrial or tourism sectors.
UN-Water, a coordinating mechanism for all UN agencies working on water, has published a brochure on Coping with Water Scarcity. Within this brochure you will find out what all UN agencies are doing as well as other alternatives. You will find a link to UN-Water and the UN-Water World Water Day on our freshwater webpage:
Dhaval Joshi(from India asked him.............)
dear sir,
wwf recently released their list of ten river which due to some collective reasons like pollution ,climate change etc are going to disappear or get deceased.since these rivers are very important source in their regions , what do u think is the source of freshwater for people depending on them post such phenomenas?
dhaval joshi (from India)
Tim Kasten replies........................
Dear Dhaval Joshi,
The question you have posed is a relevant question for many areas and very relevant to match the theme of this year’s World Water Day – Water Scarcity.
Of course the first goal is to avoid these rivers from drying up. Though they may currently be on an “endangered” list, there is still much that can be done to reduce pollution and adapt to climate change. The very practices that can help avoid their drying up are those that would be used if they were to dry up, as such, it is best to put such practices in place now.
Such practices would include integrated planning to determine the reasons they are drying up and mitigate them now. For example, If such stresses include excess extraction for agriculture, then irrigation practices must be made more efficient, including better use of rainwater where appropriate. Integrated planning must also include other increased efficiency programmes - in other words getting the most out of what you have available - for example in industrial or tourism sectors.
UN-Water, a coordinating mechanism for all UN agencies working on water, has published a brochure on Coping with Water Scarcity. Within this brochure you will find out what all UN agencies are doing as well as other alternatives. You will find a link to UN-Water and the UN-Water World Water Day on our freshwater webpage:
water resources assessment
World of Salt: Total Global Saltwater and Freshwater Estimates
Estimates of global water resources based on several different calculation methods have produced varied estimates. This graphic illustrates the proportions of saltwater and freshwater that make up the earth's water resources, and explains where these resources are located.
2. Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
Glaciers and icecaps contain approximately 70% of the world's freshwater, but groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater. This graphic illustrates the quantity and distribution of the world's freshwater resources in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, and in wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers.
3. Major River Basins of the World
Rivers form a hydrological mosaic, with an estimated 263 international river basins covering 45.3% of the land surface area of the earth, excluding Antarctica. This graphic shows the locations of 26 of the world's major river basins.
4. Major River Basins of Africa
This graphic shows the locations of 13 major river basins in Africa.
5. The World's Water Cycle and Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources
The water cycle consists of precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration and runoff. This graphic explains the global water cycle, showing how nearly 577 000 km3 of water circulates through the cycle each year. A table of estimated residence times of the world's water shows the estimated times that water resources exist as biospheric water, atmospheric water and so on.
6. The World's Surface Water: Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region
The world's surface water is affected by different levels of precipitation, evaporation and runoff in different regions. This graphic illustrates the different rates at which these processes affect the major regions of the world, and the resulting uneven distribution of freshwater.
7a. River Runoff through the 20th Century
River runoff is cyclical in nature, with alternating cycles of wet and dry years. These graphics show the average annual volumes of river runoff by continent and the deviations from average amounts of runoff for most of the 20th century.
7b. River Runoff through the 20th Century
7c. Variations in River Runoff by Continent through most of the 20th Century
8. Global Sediment Loads: Suspended Sediment Discharged by Region
Asia exhibits the largest runoff volumes and, therefore, the highest levels of sediment discharge. This graphic shows the amounts of suspended sediments discharged every year in the major regions of the world.
9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 1976-2000 and Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000
Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater. Alkalinity is another indicator of freshwater quality. These graphics compare the concentrations of these two factors in the major regions of the world for the periods 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000.
10. Global Average Nitrate Levels and Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels
Average concentrations of nitrate at major river mouths have not changed significantly between 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000. There have been some changes, however, in phosphate concentrations at major river mouths. These graphics compare nitrate levels and phosphate levels for 1976-1990 and 1991-2000, and illustrate the changes that have occurred between the two time periods.
11. Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) Case Studies.
The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is an example of a comprehensive strategic assessment designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters. This graphic shows GIWA case studies for the Black Sea, the Amazon, the Great Barrier Reef and the Agulhas Current.
12. Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources
GIWA's assessment tools for monitoring the world's water resources, incorporating five major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework, are now beginning to yield results of practical use for management decisions. This graphic explains the GIWA Assessment Methodology and GIWA's main environmental concerns.
13. The DPSIR Framework (Driving Forces- Pressures- Impacts- State- Responses)
The DPSIR framework is used to assess and manage environmental problems. This graphic explains the DPSIR process.
Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption
Freshwater use is partly based on several socio-economic development factors, including population, physiography, and climatic characteristics. This graphic illustrates freshwater use from 1900 to 2000 for the world's major regions, and projects freshwater use for 2000 to 2025.
15. Evolution of Global Water Use and Industrial and Domestic Consumption Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs.
Throughout the 20th century, global water use has increased in the agricultural domestic and industrial sectors. Evaporation from reservoirs has increased at a slower rate. Projections indicate that both global water use and evaporation will continue to increase.
16. Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000
The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater. This graphic shows the relative percentages of water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors in 2000.
17. Global Freshwater Withdrawal: Country Profiles Based on Agricultural, Industrial and Domestic Use
This graphic makes it possible to compare water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors at the national level.
18. Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage
The supply of safe drinking water and the provision of sanitation are management issues that raise concerns of inequitable service provision, particularly in developing countries. This graphic shows water supply and sanitation coverage in urban and rural areas, and compares global water supply and sanitation coverage with that of developing countries.
Estimates of global water resources based on several different calculation methods have produced varied estimates. This graphic illustrates the proportions of saltwater and freshwater that make up the earth's water resources, and explains where these resources are located.
2. Global Freshwater Resources: Quantity and Distribution by Region
Glaciers and icecaps contain approximately 70% of the world's freshwater, but groundwater is by far the most abundant and readily available source of freshwater. This graphic illustrates the quantity and distribution of the world's freshwater resources in glaciers and icecaps, groundwater, and in wetlands, large lakes, reservoirs and rivers.
3. Major River Basins of the World
Rivers form a hydrological mosaic, with an estimated 263 international river basins covering 45.3% of the land surface area of the earth, excluding Antarctica. This graphic shows the locations of 26 of the world's major river basins.
4. Major River Basins of Africa
This graphic shows the locations of 13 major river basins in Africa.
5. The World's Water Cycle and Estimated Residence Times of the World's Water Resources
The water cycle consists of precipitation, evaporation, evapotranspiration and runoff. This graphic explains the global water cycle, showing how nearly 577 000 km3 of water circulates through the cycle each year. A table of estimated residence times of the world's water shows the estimated times that water resources exist as biospheric water, atmospheric water and so on.
6. The World's Surface Water: Precipitation, Evaporation and Runoff by Region
The world's surface water is affected by different levels of precipitation, evaporation and runoff in different regions. This graphic illustrates the different rates at which these processes affect the major regions of the world, and the resulting uneven distribution of freshwater.
7a. River Runoff through the 20th Century
River runoff is cyclical in nature, with alternating cycles of wet and dry years. These graphics show the average annual volumes of river runoff by continent and the deviations from average amounts of runoff for most of the 20th century.
7b. River Runoff through the 20th Century
7c. Variations in River Runoff by Continent through most of the 20th Century
8. Global Sediment Loads: Suspended Sediment Discharged by Region
Asia exhibits the largest runoff volumes and, therefore, the highest levels of sediment discharge. This graphic shows the amounts of suspended sediments discharged every year in the major regions of the world.
9. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), 1976-2000 and Freshwater Alkalinity, 1976-2000
Biological oxygen demand is an indicator of the organic pollution of freshwater. Alkalinity is another indicator of freshwater quality. These graphics compare the concentrations of these two factors in the major regions of the world for the periods 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000.
10. Global Average Nitrate Levels and Global Dissolved Phosphate Levels
Average concentrations of nitrate at major river mouths have not changed significantly between 1976 to 1990 and 1991 to 2000. There have been some changes, however, in phosphate concentrations at major river mouths. These graphics compare nitrate levels and phosphate levels for 1976-1990 and 1991-2000, and illustrate the changes that have occurred between the two time periods.
11. Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) Case Studies.
The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is an example of a comprehensive strategic assessment designed to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in international waters. This graphic shows GIWA case studies for the Black Sea, the Amazon, the Great Barrier Reef and the Agulhas Current.
12. Global International Water Assessment Tools for Better Monitoring of the World's Water Resources
GIWA's assessment tools for monitoring the world's water resources, incorporating five major environmental concerns and application of the DPSIR framework, are now beginning to yield results of practical use for management decisions. This graphic explains the GIWA Assessment Methodology and GIWA's main environmental concerns.
13. The DPSIR Framework (Driving Forces- Pressures- Impacts- State- Responses)
The DPSIR framework is used to assess and manage environmental problems. This graphic explains the DPSIR process.
Global Water Withdrawal and Consumption
Freshwater use is partly based on several socio-economic development factors, including population, physiography, and climatic characteristics. This graphic illustrates freshwater use from 1900 to 2000 for the world's major regions, and projects freshwater use for 2000 to 2025.
15. Evolution of Global Water Use and Industrial and Domestic Consumption Compared with Evaporation from Reservoirs.
Throughout the 20th century, global water use has increased in the agricultural domestic and industrial sectors. Evaporation from reservoirs has increased at a slower rate. Projections indicate that both global water use and evaporation will continue to increase.
16. Freshwater Withdrawal by Sector in 2000
The agricultural sector is by far the biggest user of freshwater. This graphic shows the relative percentages of water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors in 2000.
17. Global Freshwater Withdrawal: Country Profiles Based on Agricultural, Industrial and Domestic Use
This graphic makes it possible to compare water use by the agricultural, industrial and domestic sectors at the national level.
18. Water Supply and Sanitation Coverage
The supply of safe drinking water and the provision of sanitation are management issues that raise concerns of inequitable service provision, particularly in developing countries. This graphic shows water supply and sanitation coverage in urban and rural areas, and compares global water supply and sanitation coverage with that of developing countries.
United Nations Environment Program
The total volume of water on Earth is about 1 400 million km3 of which only 2.5 per cent, or about 35 million km3, is freshwater (see table below). Most freshwater occurs in the form of permanent ice or snow, locked up in Antarctica and Greenland, or in deep groundwater aquifers. The principal sources of water for human use are lakes, rivers, soil moisture and relatively shallow groundwater basins. The usable portion of these sources is only about 200 000 km3 of water - less than 1 per cent of all freshwater and only 0.01 per cent of all water on Earth. Much of this available water is located far from human populations, further complicating issues of water use.
The replenishment of freshwater depends on evaporation from the surface of the oceans. About 505 000 km3, or a layer 1.4 metres thick, evaporates from the oceans annually. Another 72 000 km3 evaporates from the land. About 80 per cent of all precipitation, or about 458 000 km3/year, falls on the oceans and the remaining 119 000 km3/year on land. The difference between precipitation on land surfaces and evaporation from those surfaces (119 000 km3 minus 72 000 km3 annually) is run-off and groundwater recharge - approximately 47 000 km3 annually (Gleick 1993). The figure opposite shows one estimate of the average annual water balance of major continental areas, including precipitation, evaporation and run-off. More than one-half of all run-off occurs in Asia and South America, and a large fraction occurs in a single river, the Amazon, which carries more than 6 000 km3 of water a year (Shiklomanov 1999)
The replenishment of freshwater depends on evaporation from the surface of the oceans. About 505 000 km3, or a layer 1.4 metres thick, evaporates from the oceans annually. Another 72 000 km3 evaporates from the land. About 80 per cent of all precipitation, or about 458 000 km3/year, falls on the oceans and the remaining 119 000 km3/year on land. The difference between precipitation on land surfaces and evaporation from those surfaces (119 000 km3 minus 72 000 km3 annually) is run-off and groundwater recharge - approximately 47 000 km3 annually (Gleick 1993). The figure opposite shows one estimate of the average annual water balance of major continental areas, including precipitation, evaporation and run-off. More than one-half of all run-off occurs in Asia and South America, and a large fraction occurs in a single river, the Amazon, which carries more than 6 000 km3 of water a year (Shiklomanov 1999)
United Nations Environment Programme
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has been at the forefront of assessing and monitoring global water resources and presenting information on their use and management for 30 years. UNEP has compiled this report in order to provide an easily accessible resource on the state of the world's waters. The goal of this publication is to produce a clear overview, through a set of graphics, maps and other illustrations, of the state of the world's fresh and marine waters. It also illustrates the causes, effects, trends and threats facing our water sources, with examples of areas of major concern and future scenarios for the use and management of fresh, coastal and marine waters.
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Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition by 2025.
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Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition by 2025.
cost of managing and treating the world's water
Smith Barney, the New York-based brokerage firm, estimates the cost of managing and treating the world's water and wastewater has become a $300 billion industry, while other sources place that figure in the $500 billion range.
Water facts by Shivya Arora
1. National Geographic magazine has noted that the world has, to the drop, the same amount of fresh water it had when time began.
2. Meanwhile, fresh water makes up only 2.8 percent of the water on the planet, and two thirds of that is ice.
3. The rest is in the form of salt water, and desalination technology is too costly to use in most parts of the world.
4. Clearly, as demand for treated water increases, so does the need for leadership in the business of treating, managing, recycling and conserving the world's water.
2. Meanwhile, fresh water makes up only 2.8 percent of the water on the planet, and two thirds of that is ice.
3. The rest is in the form of salt water, and desalination technology is too costly to use in most parts of the world.
4. Clearly, as demand for treated water increases, so does the need for leadership in the business of treating, managing, recycling and conserving the world's water.
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